chapter eight

The Houses of Tomb 3 and Tomb 4

In the process of excavating trenches across the north platform of System 195 to locate its northern limits, the remnants of two houses of commoners were found—the House of Tomb 3 and the House of Tomb 4 (Fig. 8.1). Apart from sections of their patios and the tombs associated with them, nothing remained of the rooms surrounding the patios of these houses. It was clear, however, that the houses had been leveled to build the north platform of System 195, which took place in association with the construction of Structure 195-2. These two houses of commoners, then, were probably razed in ca. 800 CE when construction began on Structure 195-2 and System 195—the plaza and platforms surrounding it. It is evident, therefore, that these two houses were built and occupied sometime before 800 CE and probably corresponded in time to one or more of the elite houses of Mound 195 Sub. Each of these houses of commoners will be discussed in turn beginning with the House of Tomb 3.

THE HOUSE OF TOMB 3

The southeastern corner of the patio is located 45.8 m west and 7.6 m north of the northwest corner of Structure 195-3NE. All that remained of the house was a section of its patio floor and Tomb 3 (Fig. 8.2). Skeletal evidence from the tomb indicates that the house was occupied for three generations. Likewise, the patio floor shows evidence for three phases of construction with floors placed directly on top of one another. Artifactual crossties between Tomb 3 and Tomb 6 suggest that the House of Tomb 3 was occupied from ca. 725 to 800, that is, coincident with Structures 195-5, 195-4, and 195-3 in Mound 195 Sub.

8.1. Trenches across the north platform of System 195

Much of the eastern and part of the southern edge together with the southeastern corner of the patio of the House of Tomb 3 were preserved intact (Fig. 8.3a). Tomb 3 was situated along the eastern edge of the patio and, assuming that it was centered on the patio as are virtually all tombs at Lambityeco, the north-south dimension of the patio was 4.7 m. Most likely the patio was square.

The plaster patio floor curved up along the east and south edges, indicating that rooms had been located above. The south room was a step above the patio floor, may have had a plaster floor, and probably was enclosed on three sides by adobe walls, leaving the north side open, facing on the patio. The east room was the ancestral shrine above Tomb 3. It was a step above the patio, probably had a plaster floor, and most likely was enclosed on three sides by adobe walls with the west side open, facing on the patio. A southeast corner room probably existed between the south and east rooms and may have had a plaster floor and adobe walls on all four sides with an entrance opening on the patio. It is possible that rooms occurred along the north and west sides of the patio as well, with corner rooms in the northeast and northwest and an entryway at the southwest corner. However, because of the destruction, it will never be known for sure how many rooms occurred around the patio. Therefore, the reconstruction of the House of Tomb 3 in Figure 8.2 is mostly hypothetical.

8.2. Plan of the House of Tomb 3

TOMB 3

A break in the plaster floor of the patio with a neatly worked rectangular stone in its center marked the ancient cut leading to the entry to Tomb 3 (Fig. 8.3b). The tomb consisted of a single chamber excavated into compact sterile soil. It was oriented east-west, with the door in the west, and measured 1.84 m long, east-west, and 56 cm wide, north-south. None of the walls manifested niches or masonry construction. The floor was not plastered. Instead, the entire tomb was formed by the compact sterile soil into which it had been cut. The rear, or east end, was rounded and concave in its profile instead of being squared off. No roof was preserved. However, the presence of fragments of adobe blocks within the tomb suggests that the roof, if any existed, was probably made of adobes. The distance from floor to probable roof (highest part of the tomb walls) was about 55 cm.

8.3. Patio of the House of Tomb 3

A large stone metate (40 cm high, 50 cm wide, and 12 cm thick) served as the tomb door (Fig. 8.6a). The entrance was framed by simple door jambs composed of a series of stones. Remnants of a “lintel,” also composed of a series of stones, were found above the door jambs. The base of the door was 65 cm beneath the level of the patio floor, and the hole cut through the patio floor in front of the tomb door measured 65 cm long, east-west, and about 58 cm wide, north-south.

SKELETAL REMAINS

The tomb contained the skeletal remains of five adults and one young adolescent. Only the skeletal remains of the adults were identified during the excavation (Fig. 8.4). The first of these was a disturbed, but partially articulated, primary labeled Burial 1 (Field No. Burial 68-11) that rested at a level of about 20 cm above the tomb floor. Next, an undisturbed primary designated Burial 2 (Field No. Burial 68-12) was found in a supine position resting directly on the floor beneath Burial 1. The feet and lower legs of Burial 2 were found to rest on top of a stack of disarticulated bones and three skulls at the back (east end) of the tomb. Three totally disturbed primaries represented by three skulls were labeled Burial 3 (Field No. Burial 68-13), Burial 4 (Field No. Burial 68-17), and Burial 5 (Field No. Burial 68-18). An analysis of the skeletal remains indicates that most of the bones of these five adults can be accounted for within the tomb (see Table 7.1).

In contrast to the adults buried in Tomb 3, the young adolescent, ten to thirteen years old, was represented by only a handful of bones. Most of the bones were from the lower part of the left leg and left foot. Some of these bones were found mixed with Burial 1 and a few others came from the fill in front of the door outside Tomb 3. Because children or young adolescents are almost never buried in tombs at Lambityeco (Urcid 1983) and Monte Albán (Séjourné 1960; Autry 1973; Winter et al. 1995), it seems unlikely that the fragmentary and disarticulated remains of this youngster represent a sixth burial in Tomb 3. One probable explanation for the presence of these bones is that the hole dug to build Tomb 3 disturbed the young adolescent’s burial, or part of it, and these bones became mixed with the fill in the tomb.

8.4. Plan and profile of the human skeletal remains in Tomb 3

The first, or earliest, burials placed in Tomb 3 were the disturbed and disarticulated primaries represented by the three skulls and a stack of bones at the back of the tomb (Fig. 8.5). The three skulls were on the tomb floor in front of the stack of bones. Burial 3, represented by the skull on the south side of the tomb, is the remains of a male forty-five to fifty-five years old. Burial 4, the skull on the north side, is the remains of a female twenty-five to thirty-five years old (Fig. 8.5a). Burial 5, the skull at the center of the tomb, is also a female twenty-five to thirty-five years old (Fig. 8.5b). Although it was not possible to determine with certainty which of the skulls corresponded to which of the thoroughly mixed postcranial remains in the stack of bones at the back of the tomb, all were remains of adults (Fig. 8.5c).

Burials 1 and 2 were subsequently placed in the tomb. Burial 1, a disturbed but partially articulated primary, was a male thirty to forty years old. Although the skeletal remains were obviously removed from their original position, it seems likely that this male was buried in the tomb with his head to the west and feet to the east (Fig. 8.6a).

Burial 2, the only undisturbed primary in Tomb 3, was a female twenty to twenty-five years old. She was buried lying on her back on the floor of the tomb with her head to the west and feet to the east. Her arms were fully extended and rested at her sides. Because of the stack of bones at the back of the tomb, it was necessary to elevate her feet and legs to place them on top of the pile of bones. Her legs were crossed at the knees with the right leg on top of the left (Fig. 8.6b).

8.5. Burials 3–5 in Tomb 3

Her skull manifests intentional cranial reshaping of the tabular oblique type. She also exhibited spondylolysis, a separation of the neural arch in the pars interarticularis present in the fifth lumbar vertebra. This variation is known to run in families and is most prevalent in some populations, suggesting a hereditary condition of a tendency toward thin vertebral bone and/or faulty ossification. Spondylolysis can also be caused by stress fracture of the bone and is associated with certain activities, such as heavy lifting (Castriota-Scanderberg and Dallapiccola 2005:218; Mann and Murphy 1990:52–53). However, long-term studies of controlled groups have found no evidence that the condition is accompanied by slip progression or lower back pain (Beutler et al. 2003).

INTERMENT SEQUENCE

Because the earliest interments are located side by side with respect to the skulls and have their postcranial remains thoroughly mixed in a pile at the back of the tomb, it is impossible to determine which of these burials may have been placed before or after the others. Burial 3, a male, certainly represents remains corresponding to the earliest married couple who headed the household. One of the females, Burial 4 or 5, was most likely his wife. They probably occupied the House of Tomb 3 between ca. 725 and 750 CE, around the same time as Structure 195-5 was occupied.

8.6. Burials 1 and 2 in Tomb 3

Burial 1, a male, is the penultimate burial and represents the second generation of married couples who headed the household. It is evident that his wife (Burial 4 or 5) preceded him in death and had her skeletal remains displaced upon his interment. This second generation of household heads probably occupied the House of Tomb 3 between ca. 750 and 775 CE, perhaps around the same time that Structure 195-4 was occupied.

The disposition of the skeletal remains of Burial 1 within the tomb suggests that he was wrapped in a shroud or petate when buried. Only in this way can it be explained that his skeletal remains became only partially disarticulated when they were lifted to make room for the final interment, Burial 2. Even then, he was probably disturbed when his bones were not completely free of flesh, which suggests that Burial 2, a female who represents the third generation of married couples that headed the household, died not long after he did.

Burial 2, the only undisturbed primary, was the last burial placed in the tomb. Because the hole in front of the tomb was filled and the rectangular stone carefully placed in its center following her burial, it seems that the house was not abandoned following her interment. Her husband, however, was not buried in the tomb. Because the House of Tomb 3 was most likely leveled in ca. 800 CE to build the north platform of System 195, he probably moved and, upon his death, was buried elsewhere. The third generation evidently occupied the House of Tomb 3 from ca. 775 to 800 CE, around the same time that Structure 195-3 was occupied.

OFFERINGS

Twenty-five objects that may be grouped into ten different categories constitute the tomb’s offering. These objects are located in three different contexts. One group was found near the top of the door outside the tomb and will be referred to as the “lintel” offering. A second context was near the base of the door outside the tomb and will be referred to as the door offering. Most of the objects occur within the tomb and will be called the main offering (Fig. 8.7; Table 8.1).

The “lintel” offering consists of two objects. One was an urn placed horizontally and face-down near the top of the center of the door. The other was a bipod effigy vase placed at a forty-five-degree angle near the top of the southern part of the door. The Cociyo effigy on this vase was facing upward (Fig. 8.8a).

The gray ceramic urn measures 17.4 cm tall and was complete and intact except for a small portion along the bottom of the loincloth that was broken and missing. Like most urns, it depicts a seated figure with the legs crossed (left over the right) and hands resting on the knees. The urn sports concave circular earspools and an appliqué bead necklace. A large rectangular plaque or pendant decorated with a Glyph E (Earthquake) covers the chest area above the plain loincloth (Fig. 8.8b).

TABLE 8.1. Objects in the Tomb 3 offering

8.7. Plan and profile of the Tomb 3 offerings

Although the bucal mask of the urn represents Pitao Cozobi (Caso and Bernal 1952:99), the scrolls above and below the eyes typical of this deity are not evident. Instead, the eyes are framed by the scroll-like lower plaques and stepped upper plaques characteristic of the representations of Cociyo. The headdress is composed of three vertically placed ears of corn bound by a rope or cord that is secured by a clasp in the form of a cartouche with a Glyph C. A cloth cape drapes down from beneath the rope to cover the sides of the head and the shoulders. Although the headdress with the ears of corn is also a characteristic attribute of Pitao Cozobi, the Glyph C and the cloth cape are shared as well by Cociyo (Caso and Bernal 1952:96–100).

The gray ceramic bipod effigy vase measures 9.6 cm tall and is complete and intact (Fig. 8.8c). The small vase has a mold-made Cociyo face with a Glyph C headdress attached to the neck and body. Two small supports, one slightly chipped, have a pair of incised vertical lines decorating their fronts, a possible allusion to human toes.

8.8. Ceramic effigies from the lintel offering in Tomb 3

The door offering consists of only two objects—a ladle censer and a small G-35 bowl. The former was resting in a horizontal position parallel to the base of the door (#15 in Fig. 8.7 and Table 8.2). It showed signs of having had incense burned within it. The handle was complete and intact but the pan was broken with a quarter of its rim missing (Fig. 8.9d). The small G-35 bowl was not located three-dimensionally because it was assembled from numerous small sherds screened from the fill in front of the tomb door. Its original location in the door offering, therefore, is not known (#1 in Table 8.2).

Twenty-one objects were found inside the tomb. Most of these objects were left near the west end, close to the inside of the door. Many of the objects are G-35 bowls that were arranged around the skull of Burial 2 (Fig. 8.9a). A single ladle censer (#16 in Fig. 8.7 and Table 8.2) was located on the floor just inside the door along the south side of the tomb. The end of its handle was nearly against the tomb door. It was broken but complete and showed evidence of having had incense burned within it (Fig. 8.9d).

There were also eleven G-35 and two K-14 bowls in the main offering (Fig. 8.9b). A large G-35 bowl (#2 in Fig. 8.7 and Table 8.2) was placed vertically with its mouth facing the inside of the door directly west of the top of the skull of Burial 2 (Figs. 8.9a and c). Three small G-35 bowls (#12, #13, and #14) were located north of the skull of Burial 2. Along the south side of the skull were two “loose” stacks of bowls. One with three bowls (#3, #6, and #11) occurred near the top of the skull. The second was located near the mandible of the skull and included five bowls (#4, #7, #8, #9, and #10). A final G-35 bowl (#5) was broken and occurred near the east end of the tomb.

Two sandy brown ceramic ollas were found in the tomb (Fig. 8.10a). Both were broken and incomplete. One (Field No. 6905) was located in the northwest part of the tomb and contained the skull of Burial 1 within it. This olla had a rim diameter of 22 cm and had only half of its upper portion preserved. The second olla (Field Nos. 6906/6907) was nearly complete. Its upper half was located on the south side near the midpoint of the tomb and its base was located near the south side toward the back (east) of the tomb. This olla had a rim diameter of 19.2 cm, a maximum diameter of 25 cm, and an estimated height of 30 cm. Both ollas were smudged on the exterior, indicating that they were used and had been placed on a fire. These ollas are different in shape from salt boilers and were probably used for cooking, not salt boiling (compare Figs. 3.1d and f with Fig. 8.10a).

Fragments of a gray ceramic tecomate (Field No. 6998) were screened from within the tomb (Fig. 8.10b). Although some of the fragments fit together, the tecomate was not complete enough to obtain rim diameter or other metric measurements. Likewise, because the sherds were scattered throughout the tomb fill it was not possible to locate the tecomate three-dimensionally.

TABLE 8.2. Bowls and ladle censers from Tomb 3

Notes:

1. For designs on bowl bases see Figure 7.14.

2. This bowl is not shown in Figure 8.7.

8.9. Bowls and ladle censers from Tomb 3

8.10. Ollas, tecomate, mano, and bone batten from Tomb 3

A complete and intact mano (Field No. 6925) was found near the floor along the north side of the tomb, placed near the left arm of Burial 2 (Fig. 8.10c). It measures 20 cm long and is 9 cm by 6 cm. The mano is battered on one end and has two working surfaces, which show traces of lime and red paint.

A small bone batten (Field No. 6984), 6.5 cm long, 2 cm wide at the large end and 1.1 cm wide at the small end, and 6 mm thick, was screened from the upper levels of Tomb 3 near the plow zone (Fig. 8.10d). For this reason it was not located three-dimensionally. Although it appears that it was probably intended as an offering, its location in the extreme upper limits of the tomb makes this uncertain.

The upper portion of a miniature stone replica of an elite tomb façade (Field No. 6908) was found near the back (east end) and toward the north side of the tomb (Fig. 8.11). It was broken and incomplete and measured 38 cm long, 12.7 cm high, and 8.5 cm thick. The lower half was broken and missing. The intact part includes two panels framed by double cornices. The panels have traces of plaster and red paint. A horizontal groove runs along the top surface (Fig. 8.11a). A reconstruction of this small replica is presented in Fig. 8.11b and similar examples are shown in Figures 8.11c and d.

8.11. Fragment of a miniature stone replica of the Tomb 6 façade, its hypothetical reconstruction, and comparison with similar replicas

A fragment of a figurine head (Field No. 6913) was found near the center and well above the floor of the tomb. Because it was broken and incomplete and because figurine heads are commonly located in fill, it seems likely that this figurine head was part of the fill in Tomb 3 (Fig. 8.7).

PATTERNS IN THE TOMB 3 OFFERING

The offering in this tomb appears to parallel the patterns observed in the Tomb 6 offering but in a simpler way, reflecting the commoner status of the household. As was the case with Tomb 6, the urn and effigy vessel relating to Zapotec ancestor and deity themes occur in the “lintel” offering. The door offering also parallels the Tomb 6 door offering in a very modest way. In both cases there is evidence for the burning of incense upon the opening or final closing of the tomb door and an offering of food was placed in front of the door following its closing.

Most of the offerings were placed within the tomb together with the skeletons of five adults. Again, certain parallels occur with the antechamber and main chamber offerings in Tomb 6. A large number of bowls were placed in Tomb 3 and Tomb 6 as offerings of food. In addition, incense burning in accompaniment with the interments occurred.

Like the antechamber of Tomb 6, the main offering in Tomb 3 included a number of different kinds of objects representing personal items or items intended as offerings for specific individuals buried there. The bone batten (if it was an offering) indicates that one of the individuals in the tomb practiced weaving. The mano, ollas, and tecomate may have been placed as an offering for any one of the females buried in the tomb. The broken stone replica of the façade of an elite tomb may have been a memento, although it may have been simply a reused stone placed in the tomb’s roof with no particular meaning to the commoners who occupied the house.

Conspicuously absent from the Tomb 3 offering are personal adornments that those interred within the tomb might have worn. There are no pendants from necklaces, bracelets, earspools, or even a single bead. It appears that the individuals buried in Tomb 3 were either interred without their personal adornments or that none had any personal adornment. The lack of personal adornments reflects the status of those buried in the tomb as commoners.

THE HOUSE OF TOMB 3 AND THE HOUSES OF MOUND 195 SUB

The question arises as to where the commoners of the House of Tomb 3 obtained an urn, bipod effigy vase, and broken miniature stone replica of the façade of an elite tomb. The broken stone replica might have been scavenged from an elite midden, but the urn and bipod effigy vase certainly were not. There are two possibilities for where these latter objects might have been obtained. First, it is possible that urns and bipod effigy vases were produced for and sold on the open market by the ceramic specialists who made them, permitting even commoners who could afford the price the possibility of purchasing them. Second, commoners may have received these mortuary items from nobles who rewarded them for a lifetime of loyal service. Evidence from Tomb 3 favors the latter interpretation and indicates a relationship between the commoner married couples who headed the Tomb 3 household and the elite households who occupied the last three houses of Mound 195 Sub.

8.12. Bipod effigy vases from Tombs 3 and 6 with the same moldmade Cociyo face

The bipod effigy vase from Tomb 3 and one from Tomb 6 have identical Cociyo faces, suggesting that they were made by the same potter from the same mold (Fig. 8.12). There are four bipod effigy vases in the Tomb 6 offering and only one of them is identical to the one from Tomb 3 (see Fig. 7.7e). In fact, of all the bipod effigy vases found in tomb and burial offerings at Lambityeco, none is identical to another except the two from Tomb 3 and Tomb 6. This suggests that one of the elite household heads who occupied the last three houses of Mound 195 Sub presented a mortuary offering for one of the individuals who headed the Tomb 3 household that included the bipod effigy vase and, most likely, the Pitao Cozobi urn as well.

Another object in the tomb indicates a connection between one of the last three households of Mound 195 Sub and the Tomb 3 households. The stone replica of the façade of an elite tomb from Tomb 3 is an exact copy in miniature of the façade of Tomb 6 minus the portrait heads. In fact, a comparison of the measurements of the façade of Tomb 6 and the stone replica revealed that the replica is a one-quarter scale copy of the façade. This, combined with the fact that both have horizontal grooves along their tops and both have their panels painted red, demonstrates that the object was indeed a miniature replica of the façade of Tomb 6.

The presence of the miniature replica in Tomb 3 suggests that a member of one of the Tomb 3 households was either given the upper part of the broken replica or scavenged it when it was discarded by one of the elite households of Mound 195 Sub. This indicates that a member or one of the married couples who headed the household had access to the elite households of Mound 195 Sub, or at least to their middens. It is possible that one or more of the married couples that headed the Tomb 3 household worked for the elite households of Mound 195 Sub. The broken fragment of the miniature replica may have been kept as a memento that finally ended up in the Tomb 3 offering or was simply reused as a stone in the tomb’s roof.

The presence of these objects in Tomb 3 indicates a relationship between the Tomb 3 household and the elite households of Mound 195 Sub over a period of three generations between ca. 725 and 800 CE. The relative proximity of the two households, only 45 m apart, suggests that the commoners who occupied the House of Tomb 3 were retainers who served the elite households of Mound 195 Sub on a fulltime basis. It also seems likely that the House of Tomb 3 was within the western limits and near the entrance to the large residential compound belonging to the elite households of Mound 195 Sub, which also included the elite households of Mound 190 occupied by their noble relatives. Having been constructed there by the Tomb 3 household or built and maintained by the elite households, the House of Tomb 3 was well-situated as a point from which to control access to the large residential compound (Fig. 8.13).

THE HOUSE OF TOMB 4

The southeast corner of the patio of the House of Tomb 4 was located 9.5 m north and 34 m west of the northwest corner of Structure 195-3NE. The southeast corner of the patio of the House of Tomb 4 was likewise located 1.9 m north and 11.8 m east of the southeast corner of the patio of the House of Tomb 3, which places the houses very near one another within the large residential compound (Fig. 8.13).

All that remains of the House of Tomb 4 is a portion of its patio, Tomb 4, and four burials (Fig. 8.14). Evidence from the tomb indicates that the house was only occupied for a single generation from ca. 775 to 800 CE. The stone foundation along much of the east side of the patio and part of the south side was preserved intact, but the rooms above the patio were destroyed and missing (Fig. 8.15a). The patio was not paved with a white plaster floor. Instead, it was paved with crushed ignimbrite, a white chalky substance that occurs in natural deposits below the red gravelly tepetate at Lambityeco.

8.13. Houses of Tombs 3 and 4 within the residential compound

Tomb 4 was located along the east side of the patio under what would have been the east room of the house. Assuming that Tomb 4 was centrally located, the patio would have measured about 4 m north-south. The east-west dimensions of the patio are unknown. However, a burial occurred between 4 m and 6 m west of the eastern limits of the patio. If this burial had been placed in the northwest corner of the patio, the patio would have measured 6 m east-west. On the other hand, if the burial had been placed beneath the north side of the west room of the house, then the patio would have measured 4 m east-west. Because there are houses of commoners at Lambityeco with patios that measure about 4 m by 4 m (Markens, personal communication, 2006), it will be assumed that the patio of the House of Tomb 4 also measured 4 m by 4 m.

8.14. Plan of the House of Tomb 4

The House of Tomb 4 certainly had rooms on its east and south sides as attested by the presence of foundation stones in these areas. The east room was a step above the patio floor and probably had adobe walls on three sides with the west side open, facing on the patio. It served as the ancestral shrine room for the household ancestor buried below in Tomb 4. The south room was a step above the patio with adobe walls on three sides and the north side open, facing on the patio. A southeast corner room probably occurred between the south and east rooms. It may have been a step above the patio and probably had adobe walls on all four sides with a narrow entrance opening on the patio.

8.15. House of Tomb 4, stone foundations, and Tomb 4

A west room may be inferred from the burial placed beneath it. It probably had adobe walls on three sides, leaving the east side open, facing on the patio. A corner room probably occurred at the northwest corner of the patio. It also seems likely that a north room and a northeast corner room may have occurred with a possible entryway to the house in the southwest corner. Because the patio floor was not plaster, it seems unlikely that any of the room floors were plaster. They may have been compact earthen floors or surfaced with crushed ignimbrite like the patio but their destruction makes this impossible to ascertain. Because most of the House of Tomb 4 was destroyed, its reconstruction in Figure 8.14 is mostly hypothetical.

TOMB 4

This tomb consisted of a single chamber excavated into compact sterile soil (Fig. 8.15b). It was oriented east-west, with the door in the west, and measured 1.92 m long, east-west, and 68 cm north-south at its widest point. None of the walls manifested niches or masonry construction and the floor was not plastered. Instead, the tomb was formed by the compact sterile soil into which it had been cut. The rear, or east end, was elliptical and rounded in its profile instead of being squared off. No roof was preserved but the distance from floor to a probable roof (highest part of the tomb walls) was about 50 cm.

The tomb door was formed by three stones, the largest of which was 44 cm high, 26 cm wide, and 13 cm thick. Smaller stones were placed to fill the gap between two of the stones and complete the door. A series of stones on either side of the door formed the jambs. The base of the door was about 55 cm beneath the level of the patio floor.

SKELETAL REMAINS

A single disturbed primary burial (Burial 68-14) was found within the tomb (Fig. 8.16). Virtually all of the bones of this burial had been removed, presumably when the house was abandoned during the construction of the north platform of System 195. The incomplete remains included the still articulated feet, some partially articulated hand phalanges, and two teeth. By their distribution within the tomb, the skeletal remains suggest that the individual was buried in an extended position with the head to the west and feet to the east. The right arm appears to have been parallel to the body, judging from the position of the hand phalanges. The individual buried in the tomb was clearly an adult but it was not possible to determine the sex or age at death.

8.16. Plan and profile of Tomb 4

OFFERINGS

All the offerings, four G-35 bowls, were contained within the tomb (Fig. 8.17b). Two of the bowls were in upright positions on the floor. One (#3 in Fig. 8.16 and Table 8.3) was broken and incomplete and located near the left hand of the burial. The other (#4) was complete and intact and located near where the left knee must have been.

The other two bowls were in fill 37 cm above the tomb floor (Fig. 8.15). One (#1 in Fig. 8.16 and Table 8.3) was broken and incomplete and located near the center of the tomb close to the door. The other (#2) was broken but complete and located near the midpoint of the tomb. Whether other offerings were taken away when the skeleton was removed from the tomb is unknown.

BURIALS ASSOCIATED WITH THE HOUSE OF TOMB 4

Four burials were found in association with the House of Tomb 4. Because only married couples who headed households were buried in tombs, these burials represent individuals who belonged to the household and who were buried under the patio floor, under a room floor, or just beyond the confines of the house (Fig. 8.14).

8.17. The House of Tomb 4, adobe blocks atop the patio floor, and G-35 bowls from Tomb 4

TABLE 8.3. G-35 bowls in the Tomb 4 offering

Note:

1. For designs on bowl bases see Figure 7.14.

Burial 68-4 was an undisturbed primary located just beyond the confines of the house in a grave that had been dug directly west of the probable west room of the house (Fig. 8.18a). The burial was that of a child between one and three years old. It was buried in an extended position with its head to the west and feet to the east. The skeleton rested on its back with the legs extended and the arms extended at the side of the body. The trunk of the body was twisted slightly toward the south and the skull with the right side down was facing south. No intentional cranial reshaping is evident (Urcid 1983:104). No offering was present with the burial.

Burial 68-10 was an undisturbed primary located beneath the patio floor of the House of Tomb 4 (Fig. 8.18b). It was placed in a grave dug parallel to the eastern edge of the patio only 40 cm south of the south side of the door to Tomb 4 (Fig. 8.14). The remains were those of an infant six to nine months old. It was buried on its back in an extended position with the head to the north and feet to the south. The arms were extended alongside the body. The skull exhibits intentional cranial reshaping of the tabular oblique type. No offering was present with the burial.

Burial 68-16 was an undisturbed primary located beneath the patio floor. It was placed in a grave dug parallel to the northern edge and 60 cm west of the northeastern corner of the patio. The burial was that of a child between one and three years old. It was buried on its back in an extended position with the head to the west and feet to the east (Fig. 8.19b). The arms were parallel to the body. The skull, which exhibits no evidence of intentional cranial reshaping (Urcid 1983:104), was covered by a large inverted G-35 tripod bowl (Fig. 8.19a). The bowl had solid tripod supports and measured 28.7 cm in diameter and was 9.5 cm high (Fig. 8.19c). It was broken and incomplete and had a type J pattern burnished base design (see Fig. 7.14) on its interior base.

8.18. Burials 68-4 and 68-10 from the House of Tomb 4

Burial 68-15 was an undisturbed primary located under what would have been the west room. The grave was dug inside the room parallel to the north wall. The remains were those of an adult male between thirty-five and forty years old. He was buried on his back in an extended position with the head to the east and feet to the west. His arms were bent at the elbows and crossed over his chest. The feet were crossed with the right foot over the left. His skull manifested intentional cranial reshaping of the tabular oblique type (Fig. 8.20b).

8.19. Burial 68-16 from the House of Tomb 4

An offering of two G-35 bowls accompanied the burial. One was inverted over the right side of the face and neck (Fig. 8.20a). It was a small gray G-35 bowl (Field No. 6945) that was broken but complete. Its rim diameter was 18.2 cm and its height 5.3 cm. It had no design on its interior base. The second was located in an upright position on top of the left shoulder. It was also a small gray G-35 bowl (Field No. 6946) that was broken but complete. Its rim diameter was 18 cm and its height 6 cm. It had a cross or type A pattern burnished design (see Fig. 7.14) on its interior base (Fig. 8.20c). There were no visible contents in the bowl.

THE TOMB 4 HOUSEHOLD

Tomb 4 and the burials found associated with the house provide insight into the possible nature of the household. The skeletal remains in the tomb correspond to either the husband or wife who headed the household. However, one adult male thirty-five to forty years old was buried beneath the floor of the west room (Burial 68-15). This individual was obviously not a household head. Given the high frequency of joint family households in indigenous communities (Carrasco 1964; Romney and Romney 1966), it seems likely that he was a married relative of the married couple who headed the household. Because he was buried under the west room, it seems likely that he and his family occupied the west room. Likewise, the child (Burial 68-4), one to three years old, who was buried beyond the confines of the house behind the west room, was probably a household member.

8.20. Burial 68-15 from the House of Tomb 4

Two other members of the household who died and were buried within the house were also children. Burial 68-10, located a short distance south of the door of Tomb 4, was an infant six to nine months old. Because the infant’s burial was so close to the door of Tomb 4, the baby may have belonged to the married couple who headed the household. Burial 68-16, a child one to three years old, was the only child with an offering. It is possible that this child also belonged to the married couple who headed the household. According this child an offering probably reflects the fact that he or she was older than Burial 68-10. The House of Tomb 4, then, was probably occupied by a joint family household between ca. 775 and 800 CE.

COMPARISON OF THE HOUSES OF TOMB 3 AND TOMB 4

The House of Tomb 3 was probably occupied between ca. 725 and 800 CE by three successive generations of married couples who headed the household. The bipod Cociyo effigy vase and the Pitao Cozobi urn were probably mortuary offerings provided by the elite household heads of Mound 195 Sub to one of the Tomb 3 household heads in recognition of loyal service as retainers. One of these retainers may have obtained the broken miniature replica of the façade of Tomb 6 that found its way into the Tomb 3 offering or roof.

Whereas the House of Tomb 3 was occupied for three generations, the House of Tomb 4 was occupied for only a single generation from ca. 775 to 800. Their proximity to one another might suggest that they were occupied by related families, perhaps resulting from the Tomb 3 household outgrowing its capacity to house all its members. However, it is more likely that the House of Tomb 4 was occupied by a joint family completely unrelated to the Tomb 3 household as is indicated by the presence of Tomb 4, a separate household tomb. In either case, the Tomb 4 household represents an additional group of commoner retainers who either built or had their house built for them within the large residential plot belonging to the elite households of Mound 195 Sub.

THE ABANDONMENT OF THE HOUSES OF TOMBS 3 AND 4

The Houses of Tombs 3 and 4 were abandoned and leveled in conjunction with the construction of the north platform of System 195, which was begun around 800 CE. Clear evidence for this comes from the patio of the House of Tomb 4. The northern limits of the north platform were built directly over the southern portion of the patio of the House of Tomb 4. These limits were defined by a row of adobe blocks with a series of adobe blocks south of them used to level the top of the north platform (Fig. 8.17a). The demolition of these houses and the construction of the platform over their remains again indicate that the Houses of Tombs 3 and 4 had been built on land belonging within the large residential compound of the elite households of Mound 195 Sub (Fig. 8.13).