Index
academic achievement, of multiracial students, 36, 37–39
academic expectations, 111
agency, of mixed-race identity, 6–7
Alaska Native, identity as, 54–55, 73, 100
alienation, of mixed-race students, 125, 128
Alipuria, L. L., on racial labeling, 42–43
Alutiq, 54
AMEA. See Association of Multiethnic Americans
American Indian(s): authenticity, 86, 95, 98–99; blood quantum and, 64–65; boundary marking, 130; identity as, 51, 79; intermarriage, 28; learning to be, 108–9; in New Mexico, 18; stereotypes, 62, 114–15; survival legacy, 100–101. See also Indianness
American Indian Law Center, 77
Amy, 55, 78, 84, 101, 143; college experience, 88, 89; on whiteness, 83, 95
Anthony, 73, 143; college experience of, 88, 95, 113–14, 115; self-identity of, 52–53, 83
anti-blackness, 8
art: authenticity of, 98–99, 109–10; cultural and traditional, 108, 125; legitimate American Indian, 86, 87
Asians: biracial, 29; as honorary whites, 27, 28
Association of Multiethnic Americans (AMEA), 26
authenticity, 73, 102, 108; black, 66; blood quantum and, 75, 104, 138; construction of, 63–64, 72; cultural, 77–79; Indianness, 67–68, 109; Nativeness and, 115, 116; phenotype and, 94–95, 114; racialized, 96
Bell, Derrick, “Serving Two Masters,” 116
benefits, of mixed-race identity, 33–34
“Bill of Rights for Racially Mixed People, A” (Root), 26
biraciality, 23, 29, 55; and academic achievement, 38–39; school curriculum and, 39–40
Black Indians (Katz), 80–81
blackness, 5, 8, 65; and American Indian identity, 67, 98–99, 109; authentic, 66; in classroom settings, 85–86, 110; disenfranchisement of, 100; and group association, 118; in power structure, 69; and racial identity, 75
blacks, 12(n1), 100; academic achievement, 38–39; and American Indian identity, 63, 65–66, 79; Cliff View perceptions of, 85–86, 109–10; labeling of, 87; mixed-race, 27, 29, 30, 75; in New Mexico, 18, 82; in racial hierarchy, 25, 28; self-perception as, 51–52; social stigma and, 76, 96
blood quantum, 61, 70, 74; and group membership, 103–4; and identity politics, 5, 64–69, 75–76, 134, 138; Indianness, 80, 101; racial identification, 21–22
boarding school syndrome, 137
border identity, 37
boundary marking: American Indian, 95, 130; group, 96–97
Bradford, Sam, 96
Bureau of Indian Affairs, 51
California, 33; identity and academic achievement, 37–38
Calleroz, M. D., community acceptance or rejection, 44–45
Carberry College, 43
case study: methodology, 50–51; qualitative, 49–50; student profiles, 51–55
castes, racial, 94
categorization, 7; and self-perception, 42
census movement, 23
Certification of Indian Blood (CIB), 109
Cherokee, 4; identity as, 66, 98–99
CIB. See Certification of Indian Blood
civil rights movement, racial hierarchy, 25
Cliff View College: case study at 51–57; discrimination at, 111–12; educational environment at, 135; educational services at, 107; group association at, 96–97, 118–19; identity choice at, 127–28; institutionalized racism at, 116–17, 126; mixed-race experience and, 85–86, 105, 109, 115; participant case study, 50–51; peer interactions, 97–98, 131; racial comments at, 110–11; racial positionality, 135–36; self-determination and survival at, 102–3; skin color and politics at, 97–98; student expectations at, 112–14
cliques, 44
colleges: identity variance, 34–35; minority preference, 77; racial labeling at, 43. See also tribal colleges
colonization/colonialism, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138
color-blind ideology/agenda, 25, 68, 40; white supremacy and, 26–27
colorism, 72–73, 90(n2), 99, 133, 135, 136; race and, 79, 80, 124
Comanches, mestiza/o formation, 18
communities: access to, 86; acceptance or rejection in, 44–45
Corrin, W. J., racial identification study, 38–39
Critical Race Theory (CRT), 17–18, 80, 106–7, 124–25, 134, 137
crossover power, biracial, 40
CRT. See Critical Race Theory
cultural capital, white, 20
cultural competence, 137
cultural inferiority/superiority, 129
culture, American Indian, 107–8
curriculum: biracial aspects in, 39–40; racial politics, 118
data collection: in Cliff View College study, 56–57; in state education departments, 38
Deloria, Vine, Jr., 76–77, 106
discrimination, 25, 40, 111–12, 124–25
Douglas High School, curriculum, 39–40
Eastern Band Cherokee Tribe, 4
economics: of Indianness, 76–77; of tribal colleges, 117–18
education: equality in, 135; goals of, 106–7; inequality in, 127
education departments, data collection at, 38
educators, Cliff View College, 127–28, 135
empowerment, 8
enrollment, and legitimacy, 86
essentialism, strategic, 24. See also race essentialism
Eugene (Ore.), 46
Euro-American traditions, in school curricula, 39–40
exclusion, from group association, 94–95, 109–10
experiences, racialized, 3–5
families: acceptance of, 87–88; group association, 79; identity construction, 65–68, 71–72, 80; support for, 136; survival legacy, 100–101
Fernandez, Carlos, 26
funding, tribal college, 117–18, 119
Grier, Mike, 76
group association/membership: acceptance in, 86, 87–88; authenticity and, 94–95, 102; blood quantum and, 103–4; boundary marking, 96–97; exclusion, 109–10; families and, 79; and phenotype, 118–19; survival legacy and, 100–101
group sessions, in Cliff View College study, 56, 57
Haliwa Saponi Tribe, 4
Hawaii, Hispanic identity in, 83
hereditary determinism, 21, 61, 62, 63
heritage, importance of, 101–2
hierarchy, racial, 9, 12, 18–19, 20, 25, 28–29, 47(n1), 61, 62, 68, 80, 104, 118, 130, 133
higher education, identity studies, 31, 34–36
high school students: and biracial curriculum, 39–40; identity choice, 31, 33–34
Hispanicness, vs. Mexicanness, 83–84
Hispanics, 91(n4); academic achievement, 39; as honorary white, 27, 28; identity politics, 41, 81–82; self-identity as, 52–53, 55, 83, 88
hockey, 76
identity, 8, 10; and academic success, 37–39; American Indian, 107–8; authenticity, 78–79; changing, 30, 115–16; liberty and, 26–27; multiracial, 23–24, 33–34, 41; negotiation of, 62–63, 99–100, 105; in New Mexico, 81–82; racial, 9–10; racialized, 3–5; survival legacy and, 100–101
identity choice, 17, 36, 40, 83, 123–24; of Cliff View students, 64, 73–74; mixed-race, 6, 18, multiracial, 29–30, 37–38, 44; stereotypes and, 127; white control of, 30–31; women’s, 46
identity politics, 8, 134, 136; blood quantum and, 5, 64–69, 75–76, 104; mixed-race, 36, 118; in New Mexico, 81–82; power relations and, 31; studies of, 41–43
identity variance, of college students, 34–36
IEA. See Indian Education Act
Ignacio University, 43
immigrants: dark-skinned, 68; Mexican, 82; in racial hierarchy, 25, 68
Indian Arts and Crafts Act, 86, 91(n5)
Indian Education Act (IEA), 107, 119(n1)
Indianness, 6, 13(n5), 65, 66, 134; authenticity, 63–64, 67–68, 72, 87, 109; blood quantum and, 104; defining and renegotiating, 11, 100, 116–17; economic value of, 76–77; and mixed-race heritage, 129–30; in power structure, 69; in racial hierarchy, 80
Indian Reorganization Act (Indian New Deal), 65, 76, 90–91(n3)
inequality, educational, 127
intellectual capital, skin color and, 82–83
intermarriage: and American Indian survival, 101; and racial categories, 27, 28
interviews, 50; Cliff View College study, 56, 57, 139–42
invisibility; of Black Native Americans, 80–81
Japanese, mixed-race study of, 32
Kathy, 53–54, 143; authenticity of art, 98–99, 109–10; authenticity of identity, 68, 78–79; discrimination against, 111–12; exclusion of, 86; and family identity, 66; mixed-race experience, 85, 87; partner preference, 102; peer judgment, 98–99; on perception and self-identity, 74–75; and tribal college, 107–8
Katz, William, Black Indians, 80–81
Kim, 54–55, 143; college experience, 113; on group separation, 97; on identity choice, 73–74
Kiowa, 55
knowledge, racial, 137
Latinos, 83
learning environments, 11; social relations and, 32–33; self-determination and, 107; at tribal colleges, 133, 135
legitimacy, of American Indian art, 86
Lewis, A., on identity politics, 41–42
liberty, and multiracial identity, 26–27
literature, mixed-race, 11
lived experiences, 3–4, 32, 50, 90, 107, 133; race and, 13(n6), 126
Logan, 3, 143; authentic identity, 67–68; on blood quantum, 103; on cultural authenticity, 77, 96; mixed-race experience, 89, 114–15, 116; reason for attending college, 112–13; self-perception, 54, 70–71; on skin color and intelligence, 82; on survival legacy, 101; on tribes and whiteness, 69
Lopez, A. M., high school study, 33–34
Lyda, J.: multiracial study, 34–36; on phenotype, 88
“Marginal Man” (Stonequist), 22
marriage: desire for Native, 101–2; interracial, 7, 22; mixed-race, 21
McQueen, N., mixed-race study, 31–33
membership. See group association/membership
mestiza/os, mestizaje, 18; in New Mexico, 81–82
Mexicanness, 18; vs. Hispanicness, 83–84
Mexicans, Nuevomexicano perceptions of, 82, 83, 84
miscegeny, 22
mixed-race heritage, 4; agency and, 6–7; assets of, 89–90; benefits of, 40–41; components of, 22–23; disadvantages of, 84–88; identity and, 10, 11–12, 134; misconceptions about, 129–30
monoracial identity, 23, 36–37, 40
Moore, T., high school study, 39–41
multiculturalism, cultural competence, 137
multiracialism, multiraciality, 7, 12(n2); monoracial category, 19, 26; politics of, 8–9, 79; research on, 15–16
multiracials: academic achievement, 37–39; categorization, 8, 16; identity, 4–5, 7; identity choice by, 6, 17, 29–30; identity negotiations, 62–63; identity variance, 34–36; inheritance, 22–23; light-skinned, 95; politics of, 23–24; and racial hierarchy, 28–29; racialization of, 41–42, 125–26, 133; whiteness and, 19–20
Munoz-Miller, M., on self-identification, 36–37
National Health Interview Surveys, 28
Nativeness, 63; blacks and, 79, 82; college focus on, 115, 116
natural law, white supremacy and, 21
Navajo, 67, 73, 102; self-identification as, 52, 53, 71–72
negotiation, of racial identity, 62–63
New Mexico, 6, 10, 11, 18; phenotype advantages in, 89–90; Spanish identity in, 81–82, 83
North Carolina, 4; identity and academic achievement, 37–38
Nuevomexicanos, whiteness of, 81–82
Obama, Barack, racial identity, 8, 123
Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act, 76, 90–91(n3)
Omi, M., Racial Formation in the United States from the 1960s to the 1990s, 16
Ongtooguk, Paul, on identity negotiation, 100
oppression, and whiteness, 46
outsiders, black mixed-race as, 86
partners, Native, 101–2
passing, 45–46
patriarchy, whiteness and, 46
peer groups, 11, 96; judgment by, 55, 95, 98–99, 131
perception: and self-concept, 42; and self-identity, 73–75
phenotype: American Indian, 62, 63; and authenticity, 114; and group acceptance, 86, 87–88, 104, 118–19; identity negotiation and, 99–100, 136; judgment, 55; Mexican, 84; perceivable, 93–94; prejudice and, 127; and race, 11, 20–21; and racial categorization/classification, 73, 117; and racial identity, 33, 65–66, 75; and self-identity, 52, 53, 54; and self-perception, 35–36, 70–71
Phinney, J. S., on racial labeling, 42–43
“playing the race card,” and self-identity, 76–77
political institutions, racial policies of, 116–17
political power, white privilege in, 28
politics: racial, 118, 136; of skin color, 97–98
Potter, G. A., multiracial students, 37–38
power structure: crossover, 40; multiraciality, 79; racial identity and, 31; tribes and, 69; white, 25–26, 28, 67–68, 82
privilege: racial, 124, 126, 135; whiteness and, 82, 88
public policy, self-identification and academic achievement, 37–38
Puerto Ricans, biracial identification, 55
Pulera, Dominic, 45
purity, whiteness and, 64
race, 13(n6), 30, 125; colorism and, 124; vs. ethnicity, 33; identity politics and, 118; phenotypes and, 20–21; politics of, 61–62; positionality of, 135–36; purity of, 21–22; self-perceptions of, 69–84; social construction of, 34, 138; as social process, 16–17, 27; social recognition of, 61–62; student comments on, 110–11; as symbolic or signifying system, 126–27
race essentialism, 20–21, 22–23, 62, 69, 118
racial classification/categorization, 3, 9–10, 11, 24, 30, 35, 42–43; and academic achievement, 37–39; authenticity and, 73, 96; criticism and, 98–99; phenotype and, 80, 117
racial culture, at tribal colleges, 118–19
Racial Formation in the United States from the 1960s to the 1990s (Omi and Winant), 16
racial hierarchy/stratification, 9, 12, 18–19, 20, 25, 28–29, 47(n1), 61, 62, 80, 104, 133; mixed-race, 68, 118; resistance to, 130
racialization, 134; of mixed-race students, 41–42, 125–26, 133
racism, 25, 46, 68; institutionalized/structural, 116–17, 125, 126, 128–29, 135
Renn, K. A., 43
research, qualitative, 49–50
resistance, to racial hierarchy, 130
Samantha, 53, 143; college experience of, 89, 112, 115; family and identity of, 68; on group associations, 78, 94–95
Sanchez, C. E., University of New Mexico study, 43
schools, 9; curriculum, 39–40; identity cultivation, 10; institutional racism at, 128–29; mixed-race issues, 46–47, 87; racial hierarchy, 12, 130; as white space, 32–33
Seattle, 46
segregation, 9
self-determination, 107, 117–18, 119, 125, 126, 133; re-envisioning, 136–38; and survival, 102–3
self-identification: of Cliff View students, 51–55; economic value of, 76–77; multiracial, 36–37; as Navajo, 71–72; of high school students, 34; perception and, 73–75, 80–81; and social perceptions, 35
self-labeling, 42, 43, blood quantum and, 70
self-perception, 64, 90; biracial, 29; black, 51–52; and categorization, 42; identity choice and, 73–74; and multiracial identities, 36–37; phenotype and, 35–36, 70–71; of race, 69–70
self-representation, 6
“Serving Two Masters” (Bell), 116
Simon, Chris, 76
skin color, 11, 75, 136; and disenfranchisement, 95, 100; and family identity, 65–66; material value of, 126, 128; and politics, 97–98; and racial categorization, 74, 80; and social value, 82–83; and whiteness, 27, 29, 71
slaves: African, 18; skin color, 80
social Darwinism, 21
social groups. See group association/membership
social order, 125
social relations, 35; learning environments, 32–33; race and, 61–62
social status, 8, 21, 41, 79, 83, 94
social stigma, 76
social value(s), 32, 81; skin color and, 82–83
societal norms, racialized, 100
Spanish, identity as, 18, 81–82, 83
Spanish-immersion programs, 41
Spokane, 46
Stacey, 74, 143; on college experience, 87–88, 97–98; on colorism, 72–73; self-identification, 52, 71–72; on student expectations, 113; on survival legacy, 100–101
staff, education of, 134–35
stereotypes, 96, 127; American Indian, 62, 82–83, 108–9, 114–15
Storrs, D., 46
strategic essentialism, 24
students: Cliff View College, 51–55; college experiences, 105, 118–19; community membership, 44–45; identity studies, 31–36; mixed-race, 15, 43–44, 137–38; racial comments by, 110–11; racialization of, 41–42, 125–26; self-determination, 136; self-labeling, 42–43; self-perception and academics, 36–37, 40–41; social interactions, 94; at tribal colleges, 107
Subcommittee on Census Statistics and Postal Personnel, hearings, 26
survival: concepts of, 100–102; self-determination and, 102–3
Taino, identity as, 55
Tony, 51–52, 143; on authenticity, 68, 75, 79; on black identity, 85–86; college experience of, 99, 109; family and identity, 65–66, 67, 72; on racial survival, 102; self-identity, 80–81; and tribal college attendance, 107, 108
tribal colleges: colonization and, 135; discrimination and oppression in, 124–25; institutionalized racism in, 117, 126; learning environments in, 133; race issue literature in, 11; racial culture at, 6, 10, 118–19, 131, 134; reasons for attending, 107–8, 112–14; role of, 106; and self-determination, 138
Tribal Critical Race Theory (TribalCrit), 134, 137
tribes: enrollment and legitimacy, 86; identity politics of, 104; and white power structure, 69, 128–29
Troy, student comments about race, 110–11
universities: identity variance at, 34–35; minority preference at, 77; multiracial students at, 43–44; racial issues at, 130; racial labeling at, 42–43
University of New Mexico, multiracial identity study, 43–44
US House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Census Statistics and Postal Personnel, 26
victimization, 40
Virginia, American Indian identity in, 65
voices, of racial inequality, 127
whiteness, 17–18; access to, 68–69; advantages of, 83; changing definitions of, 25–26, 27, 29; claims to, 71; and group association, 118; material value of, 128; in mixed-race contexts, 19–20, 45–46, 86, 87–88; in New Mexico, 81–82, 84; perception of, 42; power dynamics, 64, 67–68, 131; in racial hierarchy, 61, 80
white privilege, 19, 20, 28, 46, 82, 88, 126; in schools, 32–33, 131; tribes and, 128–29
whites, 12(n3), 19, 20; honorary, 27, 28; identity choice, 30–31; racial purity, 21–22; school curricula and, 39–40; social power of, 25–26; and universities, 42–43
white supremacy, 17, 19, 20, 62; color-blind ideology and, 26–27
Winant, H., Racial Formation in the United States from the 1960s to the 1990s, 16
women, identity choice, 46
Wooley College, 43