Chapter Five
The RISE of ÑUU TNOO
THE HISTORY OF THE LINEAGES BEGINS WITH THE WARMTH AND ENERGY OF THE first rising of Lord Sun (Iya Ndicandii), who, with his rays of life-giving power and his call to work and glory, created a human world of knowledge and seeing while the past became a time of darkness and mystery, solid and cold as stone. The Iya and Iyadzehe, who had their origin in Yuta Tnoho, were children of light and heat; the earlier populations were reduced to immobile rock formations in their new landscape. As it was in the beginning, this process of awakening and coming to life is a daily experience.
Mornings are chilly in the highlands, even in summer, but they are quiet and beautiful. The mighty cloud serpents of the evening before, with their thunder and lightning, have passed by; the big black butterflies of the night that sought our company have disappeared. A soft white layer of clouds has descended on the valley. Floating above it are the eternal dark-green mountain peaks and gray cliffs, at first vague silhouettes in the rosy distance, then rapidly sharpening. Against the clear sky we distinguish the profile of ancient pyramids on top of a nearby hill. Suddenly the mists tear, and the towers and dome of the town’s colonial church become visible in celestial light as in a vision. The golden arrows of Father Sun, slowly penetrating the haze, touch and reveal series of low terraces with intensely green cornfields, separated by rows of magueyes and muddy footpaths among myriad yellow, white, and violet flowers flashing with dew. The twittering of small red-breasted birds, fluttering as flames among the fruit trees, mingles with the familiar sounds of roosters crowing and donkeys braying and the clapping of hands making tortillas. Light blue smoke rises from the huts.
As we advance in the time of light, the contours of persons and places, dates and conflicts become clearer, as well as the ideological statements of rulers and communities about their history. The idea that the native dynasties had a divine origin was a crucial element in the political and moral status of those seated on the mat and throne. Combined with the metaphor of unity and cosmic power, the tree, it resulted in the story of the common descent of the Iya from a mysterious Mother Tree that grew in the primordial time of darkness in an important religious center such as Yuta Tnoho (Apoala) or Ñuu Ndecu (Achiutla). All noble houses based their rights to rule on being a branch of such a Tree of Origin, but not all were considered equal. Ñuu Tnoo had the status of a central place with a dynasty that claimed prominence over all others. Burgoa tells us that its founder was one of the descendants from the Tree of Yuta Tnoho, who had gone out as conquerors to the four corners of the Ñuu Dzaui world. This prince arrived in Ñuu Tnoo and, feeling the heat of the day, understood that the Sun was the ruler of that place. Taking his arrows, he started to fight the Sun, which, as evening fell, set among red clouds above the mountain, leaving its realm to the brave warrior. The victory over the Sun was a popular theme in Ñuu Dzaui art, depicted on coats of arms and painted vessels. Referring to this story, the rulers of Ñuu Tnoo claimed the right to appoint successors to the throne in places where the local dynasty had died out (Burgoa 1934b, I: 369–372).
Descent from a specific hero, who had become the first ruler of Ñuu Tnoo by his victorious encounter with the Sun God, was thus considered a second legitimation for rulership. Clearly, this was a literary theme of great political significance. But how does Burgoa’s version relate to what the codices tell us? The Founding Lords of Ñuu Tnoo whom we have met so far do not fit into the story of the Flechador del Sol. Neither Lord 4 Alligator ‘Blood Eagle’ nor Lord 9 Wind ‘Stone Skull’ is represented as meeting or confronting the Sun God. The participation of Lord 4 Alligator in the fight against the Star Warriors, who descended from Heaven (Codex Tonindeye, 21), comes closest to such an event but still seems a rather different story. We will have to look for this theme in a later period.
5.1. The birth of Lady 1 Death from the Sacred Tree (Codex Ñuu Tnoo–Ndisi Nuu, 1-V).
LORD 9 WIND ‘STONE SKULL’
Two strong men emerged in Ñuu Dzaui after the demise of Monte Albán and the war with the Stone Men. First, there was Lord 9 Wind ‘Stone Skull’ (or ‘Death of the Stone Men’).1 It is probable that he, too, was a member of the Yuta Tnoho alliance; an individual with the same calendar name was among the offspring of the Sacred Tree, but confirmation of a coinciding given name is lacking, so we cannot be sure.2 His background is told by different codices: he descended from the primordial couple Lord 10 House ‘Jaguar’ and Lady 1 Grass ‘Puma.’ Codex Tonindeye (22) suggests that this lineage in some way succeeded Lady 1 Serpent, associated with the spring of the Yute Coo, ‘Serpent River,’ in Ñuu Tnoo; she had married a prince from Monte Negro and was installed or confirmed as ruler by the prophet Lord 12 Wind. It is interesting that Lord 10 House and Lady 1 Grass seem to have been venerated as the numina, or Patron Deities, of this Serpent River and the lands around it. Their calendar names were combined into a sacred date: year 10 House day 1 Grass.3
Their son, Lord 3 Eagle ‘Eagle from the Serpent Place,’ had married Lady 4 Rabbit ‘Quechquemitl (Virtue) of Death Town.’ Her name suggests that she came from a place called Town of Death, either Ñuu Ndaya (Chalcatongo) or Dzandaya (Mitlatongo). The latter is the most likely because the couple’s second son, Lord 1 Monkey, became the Founding Father of the Dzandaya (Mitlatongo) dynasty. The Relación Geográfica of that town tells us that the name of the Founder was Ya co ñooy, in Nahuatl Ce Usumaczi, that is, Lord 1 Monkey, and that he had been born in Yuhui Yume Yucu Cuii, in Nahuatl Xoxotepeque, “Green Mountain,” within the territory of Ñuu Tnoo (Acuña 1984, II: 237–238). Indeed, in Codex Ñuu Tnoo–Ndisi Nuu we find a Lord 1 Monkey sitting in front of a number of place signs, the first of which is Skull Mountain, which, we conclude, represents Dzandaya.
5.2. Lord 4 Alligator fights the Star Warriors (Codex Tonindeye, 21).
5.3. The marriage of Lord 9 Wind and Lady 5 Reed (Codex Ñuu Tnoo–Ndisi Nuu, 4-V).
Lord 9 Wind ‘Stone Skull’ was Lord 1 Monkey’s elder brother. He first ruled a Mountain of the Green Plant, probably the site of Yucu Cuii within the territory of Ñuu Tnoo, mentioned in the earlier-cited Relación Geográfica as the origin place of his brother.4 The given name of Lord 9 Wind seems to recall an epithet of the place of his Ancestors: Serpent River appears in Codex Tonindeye, page 23, as “River where the Stone Man was Defeated.”
Both brothers, Lord 9 Wind and Lord 1 Monkey, were recognized as local rulers. Three priests—Lord 1 Rain, Lord 10 Death ‘Cloud,’ and Lord 4 Dog ‘Serpent-Maguey’—offered them fire, quails, and branches. ‘Cloud’ or ‘Smoke’ occurs as the title of a member of the Supreme Council of four priests, which ruled Ñuu Tnoo. The Dzaha Dzaui word for “cloud” (huico) is homonymous with that for “feast” (apart from the tones), while “vapor” or “breath” can be read as yoco, a term also used for “spirit” or “deity.” The serpent in combination with the maguey (yavui) may represent the fire serpent or yahui, the powerful nahual that symbolizes shamanic ecstasy.5
The fact that the calendar names of these priests were recorded suggests that they were important individuals and played a specific role in history. Indeed, we can identify them with three important lords of earlier days. Lord 1 Rain may be the same as one of the Founding Priests of the neighboring town of Añute. In that context he is paired with Lord 1 Reed. In combination with Lord 7 Rain, he participated in the founding of Quetzal Mountain, Mountain of the Pointed Object, Valley of the Spiderweb, and Rock of the Fly—which we interpret as Ñuu Ndodzo (Huitzo), Yucu Ndeque (Huauclilla), Andua-Chindua, and Yucu Tiyuq (Sayultepec), all relatively close to Añute and Ñuu Tnoo.6
Lord 10 Death and Lord 4 Dog appear among the Founding Fathers who were born from the Tree of the Sacred Valley in Apoala. They were present when the culture hero Lord 9 Wind and the old priest Lord 2 Dog drilled the new fire for the great kingdom of Rain God Mountain (Yucuñudahui), in the time when the “sons” of the rulers of Monte Albán still had control over that area. In that scene it is Lord 4 Dog who has the title ‘Cloud.’7 Thus it seems that after the death of their two companions (princes and governors of Monte Albán), these two men, together with a priest of neighboring Añute, recognized the rulership of Lord 9 Wind ‘Stone Skull.’
This offering of royalty, then, was done by the main authorities of the Yucuñudahui realm, who had been instituted as part of the Monte Albán rulership before the war with the Stone Men broke out. They functioned as members of a Council of Four, which became the ruling body that assisted the ruler of Ñuu Tnoo.
To confirm his power in kinship terms, Lord 9 Wind ‘Stone Skull’ married Lady 5 Reed, one of the three princesses of Monte Albán whose life history we explained in Chapter 4. Together they became rulers of Ñuu Tnoo. The year of the marriage was 4 Rabbit (990), when the groom was forty-eight years old.8
The couple had three sons. In the year 6 Flint (992), Lord 10 Flower, ‘Jaguar with Burned Face,’ was born; that given name qualifies him as a jaguar warrior who won victories in a war with speakers of Nahuatl (the Toltecs). Later followed Lord 13 Eagle ‘Precious Jaguar’ and Lord 3 Water ‘White Arrow.’
SUMMARY: FIRST GENERATIONS OF THE ÑUU TNOO DYNASTY (MALE LINEAGE)
Lord 10 House + Lady 1 Grass (primordial couple, Yute Coo)
Lord 3 Eagle + Lady 4 Rabbit (from Dzandaya / Mitlatongo)
Lord 9 Wind (b. 942) + Lady 5 Reed (from Monte Albán), married 990
Lord 10 Flower (b. 992)
LORD 8 WIND ‘TWENTY EAGLES’
A younger contemporary of Lord 9 Wind ‘Stone Skull,’ and the other strong man who emerged as a prominent political figure out of the conflictive tenth century, was Lord 8 Wind ‘Twenty Eagles’ (iya Nachi ‘Oco Yaha’), the ruler of Altar of White Flowers. This toponymic sign played an important part in the early history of Añute (Jaltepec), described by Codex Añute; one of Añute’s early queens came from there, and later her brother tried to conquer Añute with force. This suggests that Altar of White Flowers is close to Añute. The same place sign also occurs in Codex Ñuu Naha with the gloss Chiyo Yuhu, the Dzaha Dzaui name of Santa María Suchixtlan, which is indeed close to Añute (Smith 1973b). The etymology of the first element of the toponym is clear: chiyo means “altar” and is painted as such. The most frequent meaning of the word yuhu is “mouth,” but that is clearly not what the glyph expresses. Another translation of yuhu is “hidden” or “secret,” leading to an etymology of Chiyo Yuhu as “Hidden or Secret Altar.” For painting that abstract quality, the artists seem to have resorted to the word yuhndu, the first syllable of which (yuh-) sounds very similar to yuhu in Dzaha Dzaui. It occurs in the name of the yutnu yuhndu, the white flowering strawberry tree (madroño in Spanish), which grows in the area. In the Early Postclassic the sign may actually have represented Cerro Jazmín, where a huge Late Classic archaeological site is located, close to the modern town of Suchixtlan.
5.4. The sign of Chiyo Yuhu (Suchixtlan).
Lord 8 Wind ‘Twenty Eagles’ is shown as having been “born from the earth,” which means he was a real Ñuu Dzaui noble of local origin. The toponymic signs associated with that scene are a stone ball court and a Temple of Flames, possibly a reference to Ñuu Ndecu (Achiutla), a holy place of origin and pilgrimage, the main ceremonial center and oracle for the Mixteca Alta.9
Immediately afterward, Lord 8 Wind ‘Twenty Eagles’ is shown as coming out of (originating from) the River that Pulls out Feathers, that is, Yuta Tnoho (Apoala). His relationship with that town is confirmed by his appearance among the primordial princes who were born from the Tree in the Sacred Valley. He clearly belonged to the Yuta Tnoho alliance but did not participate in the events in Monte Albán or in the war against the Stone Men; he was born too late.
By stressing his ideological background in this way, the true origin of Lord 8 Wind ‘Twenty Eagles’ is left completely in the dark. Given the importance of Cerro Jazmín in the Late Classic and Lord 8 Wind’s young age at the time of his enthronement rituals (discussed later), we suspect that he was related in some way to the nobility of that site. But, like the other participants in the crisis cult, he defined himself as a new political figure for whom genealogical links with former dynasties were of no importance.
5.5a. The birth of Lord 8 Wind in Yuta Tnoho and the first ceremonial greetings (Codex Tonindeye, 1).
In this disjunction he seems to have been more radical than Lord 9 Wind; he did not marry a princess from Monte Albán and does not seem to have sought a particular connection to that old metropolis. Instead, the codices stress his natural sovereignty in the central area of the Mixteca Alta. He was acclaimed as ruler at different occasions.
The first ceremonial greeting and bestowing of royalty took place in Yuta Tnoho (Apoala) itself, where a group of four nobles approached him with the torch, the quail, and the xicollis (priestly tunics). Only their calendar names are given, so we cannot be totally sure about the men’s identity, but here again it is tempting to take the reference as significant and to identify them as historical personages known from other contexts.
The first noble, Lord 10 Lizard, may have been the ancient priest associated with the origin of the dynasty of Añute (Jaltepec).10
In the second noble we recognize the father of Lord 9 Wind of Ñuu Tnoo, Lord 3 Eagle, son of the primordial couple of Serpent River.
The third position was occupied by Lord 7 Jaguar, who might have been the ruler of Town of the Earth or Cave, who participated in the founding of Añute’s dynasty, although not necessarily so.11
The last member of the group was Lord 7 Monkey, who is repeated at a later enthronement ritual (discussed later). He is also mentioned as one of the Lords born from the tree at Yuta Tnoho (Apoala), and he participated in the founding of Quetzal Mountain, Mountain of the Pointed Object, Valley of the Spiderweb, and Rock of the Fly (Ñuu Ndodzo or Huitzo, Yucu Ndeque or Huauclilla, Andua-Chindua, and Tiyuq or Sayultepec), towns on the eastern border, and in the Valley of Yodzo Cahi (Yanhuitlan).12
The second place at which Lord 8 Wind ‘Twenty Eagles’ received the ceremonial greeting and offering of royalty was Mountain of the Monkey, which formed part of the Chiyo Yuhu kingdom. This is either a toponym close to Chiyo Yuhu proper or a reference to a twin capital. In the latter case, it may represent Teita.13 There was a stone ball court and a place of reverence for the dead. Among those who paid their respects on this occasion were two nobles or priests, Lord 1 Reed and Lord 1 Rain, the Founding Fathers of Añute. Lord 1 Rain had also been present at the enthronement of Lord 9 Wind ‘Stone Skull’ of Ñuu Tnoo. Two personages accompanied them: Lord 8 Vulture, whom we cannot identify, and Lord 10 Lizard, who may be identical to the man of the same name in the first group but may also be the Lord 10 Lizard who, as an old man, became an important priest in Añute and the tutor of Princess 6 Monkey (discussed later).
These first two enthronement ceremonies are not dated in historical time but are accompanied by the year 1 Reed day 1 Alligator, which simply symbolizes a new beginning. Probably, it was after the second ceremony that Lord 8 Wind settled as ruler in Chiyo Yuhu and Mountain of the Monkey. He married three wives, the first of which was Lady 10 Deer ‘Jaguar Quechquemitl’ (i.e., ‘Force of a Jaguar’), who may have been the daughter of Lord 3 Rain, a priest from Añute.14 The marriage of Lord 8 Wind and Lady 10 Deer took place in year 10 House day 1 Eagle (1009).15 Their first son, Lord 13 Grass, was born in year 2 Rabbit (1014) and became ruler of Arrow–Red Liquid.16 Second, twins were born, both named Lord 3 Lizard, distinguished only by their given names ‘Precious Long Hair’ and ‘Precious Beard.’ A series of other children followed, of which Lady 2 Serpent ‘Plumed Serpent’ is particularly important to our story.
5.5b. The New Fire ceremony for Lord 8 Wind in Yucuñudahui (Codex Tonindeye, 2).
The third enthronement ritual was at the important Late Classic acropolis of Yucuñudahui–Yucu Tnoo (“Mountain of the Rain God–Black Mountain”), the impressive archaeological remains of which are still seen on the mountain of that name close to Chachoapan in the Valley of Yodzo Cahi–Atoco (Yanhuitlan-Nochixtlan).17 The date was year 3 Reed day 4 Flint, which, if calculated chronologically, would correspond to A.D. 1015. It was a full fifty-two-year cycle after the Stone Men had attacked this place.18 The chosen day in the year 3 Reed was the pre-occurrence of the subsequent year bearer (4 Flint).
The calendar names of three of the six attendants who saluted Lord 8 Wind in Yucuñudahui coincide with names of Lords born from the Sacred Mother Tree of Yuta Tnoho: Lord 4 Rain, Lord 10 Jaguar, and Lord 2 Water.
• A Lord 4 Rain appears as Founder of Stone of the Xipe Bundle, one of the communities that integrated the early realm of Ñuu Tnoo but later became part of Chiyo Yuhu. He may have been the same individual as Lord 4 Rain ‘Pheasant Coyote,’ the brother of the archetypical nahual priest Lord 2 Dog, born in Ñuu Ndaya (Chalcatongo).19
• Lord 10 Jaguar seems to have been one of the attendant priests of that same Lord 2 Dog.20
• Lord 2 Water may be the same person as his namesake who founded the dynasty of River of the Drum and the Red Band and was married to Lady 10 Alligator ‘Jade Stone,’ probably the same as Lady 10 Alligator ‘Jade and Gold,’ the sister of Lord 2 Dog.21 Lord 2 Water and Lady 10 Alligator were the grandparents of Lord 5 Alligator and the great-grandparents of the famous Lord 8 Deer (discussed later).
• Among the other three attendants at the enthronement of Lord 8 Wind in Yucuñudahui we find Lord 5 Flower ‘Stone Man,’ the son of Lord 10 Death and Lady 8 Monkey of Yucuñudahui. After the war he had been recognized as a ruler.22
• Lord 2 Lizard, who preceded Lord 5 Flower as an attendant in the enthronement ceremony, may have been his son, who later married a daughter of Lord 8 Wind.
• The identity of the last participant in the ceremony, Lord 7 Wind, is not clear. His green body paint may indicate that he belonged to the Tocuii, “Green Lords,” the Ngigua (Chochos).23
Two more enthronement ceremonies of Lord 8 Wind followed. At Altar of the Seated Man, he was saluted again by a group of four men.24 Of these, Lord 2 Dog is probably the same as the old piciete-priest so prominent in Codex Yuta Tnoho. Lord 7 Monkey had already participated in the first of these ceremonies. The remaining two men, Lord 6 Water and Lord 6 Death, had functioned as attendants at the marriage of Lord 12 Wind and Lady 3 Flint in Monte Albán, much earlier. Eventually, they became the Founders of the dynasty of Mountain with Face and Tail—at that occasion they are represented as man and wife, probably again a metaphor for dual rulership. The mother of the famous Lord 8 Deer descended from them (discussed later).25
Finally, Lord 8 Wind received homage in the Sanctuary of the Rain God, where his nahual was strengthened by water the deity poured over him.
The toponyms suggest that Lord 8 Wind ‘Twenty Eagles’ controlled a relatively vast kingdom that included most of the Valley of Yodzo Cahi–Atoco (Yanhuitlan-Nochixtlan), a fertile plain of great economic and historical importance in the Mixteca Alta, and that may have extended as far into the mountainous area as Teita and Ñuu Ndecu (Achiutla).
5.6. The war with the Stone Men (Codex Tonindeye, 3).
SUMMARY: FIRST GENERATION OF THE CHIYO YUHU DYNASTY
Lord 8 Wind + Lady 10 Deer (Añute), married 1009
Lord 3 Lizard (twins)
Lady 2 Serpent
The MARITAL ALLIANCE between ÑUU TNOO and CHIYO YUHU
Thus, in the beginning of the eleventh century, two men from the Yuta Tnoho alliance, Lord 9 Wind ‘Stone Skull’ and Lord 8 Wind ‘Twenty Eagles,’ were firmly established as rulers in Ñuu Tnoo (Tilantongo) and Chiyo Yuhu (Cerro Jazmín, Suchixtlan), respectively. The first village-state was strategically located in the high mountainous area in the center of the Mixteca Alta, while the second lay somewhat more to the north, having the resource-rich Valley of Yodzo Cahi–Atoco at its disposal. The sites Cerro Jazmín of Chiyo Yuhu and Montenegro of Ñuu Tnoo already had a long history of habitation; both were Classic acropolises and seem to have continued to be centers of influence and prestige, controlling neighboring areas.
5.7. Lord 8 Wind and Lady 10 Deer with their first son, Lord 13 Grass (Codex Tonindeye, 5).
As stated earlier, the identifications of the persons involved as attendants in their enthronement ceremonies are speculative, but if some of them are correct, they would correspond well with this general location of the story. Lord 9 Wind then received power from two members of the Council of Four that had been ruling the vast Ñuu Dzaui realm, with its capital Yucuñudahui, a political unit that had been installed by the Monte Albán administration before the war with the Stone Men broke out. Similarly, Lord 8 Wind was declared king in a number of ideologically important places, such as Ñuu Ndecu, Yuta Tnoho, and in Yucuñudahui’s ceremonial center. His authority was recognized by the son of the Yucuñudahui ruler and even by the father of Lord 9 Wind. The presence of the Founding Priests of Añute makes it clear that he was specifically in control of the eastern part of the Valley of Yodzo Cahi–Atoco, where Añute is located, that is, the strategic passage to the Valley of Oaxaca and to the remains of the ancient hilltop site of Monte Albán.
Clearly, both Lord 9 Wind and Lord 8 Wind were important political figures. The representation of their enthronement ceremonies suggests that both boasted of their prestige, foreshadowing the development of later rivalries. But for the moment both rulers sought to strengthen their power base after the definitive demise of Monte Albán’s domination. The way to do that was to forge a marital alliance. In the year 1 House (1013), on the day 1 Eagle, they arranged a marriage for their children—the number 1 symbolically relevant as a marker of a new beginning and both days being dedicated to the West, the region of the Grandmother, the old Goddess who governs human procreation and fertility.
5.8. Lady 9 Wind, coming from Lord 8 Wind and Lady 10 Deer, makes an offering to the Sacred Bundle in Añute (Codex Añute, 5-III).
At age twenty or twenty-one, Lord 10 Flower, the son of Lord 9 Wind ‘Stone Skull’ and Lady 5 Reed, was engaged to be married to Lady 2 Serpent ‘Plumed Serpent,’ princess of Chiyo Yuhu, daughter of Lord 8 Wind ‘Twenty Eagles’ and Lady 10 Deer. As her parents had married only five years before, Lady 2 Serpent must have been a very young child. She was either born before her brother, Lord 13 Grass, shown as the first child in Codex Tonindeye (5), or she had not even been born, and the year 1 House day 1 Eagle was only the date of the agreement that Lord 9 Wind’s son would marry a daughter of Lord 8 Wind still to be born.
The Ñuu Dzaui custom suggests it was the parents of the man who took the initiative in finding an appropriate bride for their son. Thus it must have been Lord 9 Wind and Lady 5 Reed who tried to arrange a marital alliance with Lord 8 Wind ‘Twenty Eagles,’ asking him for the hand of his first daughter. This was in the political interest of Ñuu Tnoo’s king; the neighboring village of Dzandaya (Mitlatongo) was ruled by his brother, while through his wife he had ties to Monte Albán and the Town of the Xipe Bundle, which at that time seems to have taken on some of Monte Albán’s ideological importance. These alliances were probably set up to achieve peaceful relationships with the main powers in neighboring areas so the rising village-state of Ñuu Tnoo could consolidate its position.
Eventually, the union of Lord 10 Flower and Lady 2 Serpent was blessed with seven children:26 Lord 12 Lizard ‘Nduvua’ (Arrow Feet); Lord 10 Eagle ‘Stone Jaguar,’ who married Lady 9 Wind ‘Flint Quechquemitl’ (“Power of Flint Knives”) from Añute; Lady 12 Jaguar ‘Jewelled Spiderweb,’ who married Lord 10 Reed from the Yahua (Tamazola) dynasty and the ruler of Staff Town (probably Yucu Tatnu / Topiltepec); Lady 6 Grass ‘Transparent Butterfly,’ who married Lord 10 Reed ‘Precious Jaguar’ from Torch Mountain (Yucu Quesi / Tataltepec ?);27 Lady 4 Rabbit ‘Precious Quetzal,’ who married Lord 10 Flower ‘Bow Tail’ from Dark Speckled Mountain; Lady 7 Flower ‘Jewel of the Town,’ who apparently did not marry; and Lady 7 Reed ‘Jewel Flower,’ who married Lord 13 Death ‘Setting Sun’ from Head Town.
5.9a. First dynasty of Ñuu Tnoo, first part (Codex Tonindeye, 23).
The firstborn, Lord 12 Lizard ‘Nduvua’ (Arrow Feet), married his nieces, Lady 4 Flint ‘Quetzal Feather Face’ and Lady 4 Alligator ‘Jewel Face,’ both daughters of his sister Lady 12 Jaguar ‘Jewelled Spiderweb’ and her husband, Lord 10 Reed, rulers of Staff Town (Yucu Tatnu, Topiltepec?).28 This family marriage was probably motivated by the wish to bring the divided heritage together and therefore indicates the success of Lord 9 Wind and Lady 5 Reed’s consolidating policy.
The second son, Lord 10 Eagle, married in the year 3 House (1041). His bride, Lady 9 Wind, had the impressive name of ‘Flint Quechquemitl’ (Dzico Yuchi), that is, ‘Power of Flint Knives,’ a title of the Goddess known as Itzpapalotl by the Mexica. According to Codex Añute (5), she “came from” Lord 8 Wind ‘Twenty Eagles’ and his wife, Lady 10 Deer, the rulers of Chiyo Yuhu. This “coming from” probably means she was their daughter, that is, Lady 2 Serpent’s younger sister. In other words, Lady 9 Wind was marrying her elder sister’s son.
5.9b. First dynasty of Ñuu Tnoo, second part (Codex Tonindeye, 24).
If so, Lady 9 Wind must have been a late child of her parents. She is not mentioned in the list of Lord 8 Wind’s children in Codex Tonindeye (5–7). Instead, that codex (1) stresses the primordial submission of Añute to Lord 8 Wind. This part of Codex Tonindeye seems to be copied from a document from the Chiyo Yuhu historiographic tradition. Codex Añute, on the contrary, represents the Añute point of view; it contains no reference to a recognition of Lord 8 Wind but has a suggestive sequence that makes Lady 9 Wind the daughter of that Lord and his wife and at the same time the granddaughter of the earlier Añute ruler. Lady 9 Flint is characterized as “Jewel-Skull of (Lord) 8 Wind”—this title probably specified her position in relation to her father and his kingdom. The hand gestures in this section of Codex Añute (5-III/IV) add meaning to the narrative. Lady 10 Deer is instructing (with pointed finger) Lady 9 Wind to go to Añute. This is logical if she herself, as we suppose, was a noble lady from Añute and was passing on her inheritance. Her husband, Lord 8 Wind, makes the gesture of “giving” or “permitting.” Apparently, it was the queen’s idea (and right) that her daughter would go to Añute, and he could not oppose her. Once sitting on the mat and throne, Lady 9 Wind was clearly in command, pointing her finger at her husband, Lord 10 Eagle from Ñuu Tnoo, who in answer shows his open hand, that is, declares himself at her service. Clearly, the lady holds the right to the throne; her husband is a “prince-consort.” The couple is depicted with the same combination of gestures in Codex Ñuu Tnoo–Ndisi Nuu (6-V).
The marriage of Lord 10 Eagle ‘Stone Jaguar’ and Lady 9 Wind was meant to strengthen the alliance between Ñuu Tnoo and Chiyo Yuhu. But at the same time it led to an independent status for Añute, where Lady 9 Wind ‘Flint Quechquemitl’ had celebrated rituals for the Sacred Bundle and now went to live with her husband.
It seems that Lord 8 Wind ‘Twenty Eagles’ was at first fairly liberal in letting his children and vassals rule places under his influence. The idea was likely that they would act as governors under the central direction of the lineage of his successor at Chiyo Yuhu. Perhaps this was a model that had been customary during Classic times, when the role of Monte Albán had been dominant. But with the lack of such central power, the model no longer functioned; the subject rulers founded dynasties of their own and soon started to exercise their independence. An independent Añute could block Chiyo Yuhu’s access to the Valley of Oaxaca.
GENEALOGICAL SUMMARY (ÑUU TNOO LINEAGE)
• Lord 10 Flower (Ñuu Tnoo) + Lady 2 Serpent (Chiyo Yuhu), married 1013
• Lord 12 Lizard + his nieces, Lady 4 Flint and Lady 4 Alligator
• Lord 10 Eagle + Lady 9 Wind (Chiyo Yuhu), married 1041, ruled Añute
• Lady 12 Jaguar + Lord 10 Reed (from Ñuu Ñañu)
• Lady 4 Rabbit + Lord 10 Flower (Dark Speckled Mountain)
5.10. The birth of Lord 5 Alligator (Codex Ñuu Tnoo–Ndisi Nuu, 6-I).
LORD 5 ALLIGATOR ‘RAIN SUN’
The codices follow the genealogical history of the “first dynasty of Ñuu Tnoo (Tilantongo)” for two more generations, but to understand the developments in this period from a synchronic perspective, we focus now on what happened in the main ceremonial center of Ñuu Tnoo, the Huahi Andevui, “Temple of Heaven.” Its name indicates its connection with the Place of Heaven as the source of shamanic powers, dynastic origin, and the Ancestors. The Temple of Heaven formed a ceremonial unit with the Temple of Darkness, which was called Tlillan in Nahuatl and became the root of the Nahuatl name of Ñuu Tnoo: Tlillantonco. Such a Temple of Darkness used to be dedicated to the Goddess Cihuacoatl and implied a veneration of the dead Ancestors. The rituals carried out in such a complex included an elaborate Bundle cult, the cyclical drilling of the new fire, and shamanic trances of the priests.29
The Huahi Andevui of Ñuu Tnoo was located on a lower slope in front of Monte Negro, on top of which the Classic ruins were situated. It was built as a sanctuary for the Sacred Bundle of the Flint from which the Great Founder, Lord 9 Wind ‘Quetzalcoatl,’ had been born. The visionary priest Lord 12 Wind had introduced its cult after having received his instructions and power objects in Heaven and after marrying Lady 3 Flint in Monte Albán. It was right in front of this temple that he had planted the Tnucucua staff, his staff of power and authority, in the ground, thereby creating a new coherence of local lineages and defining the realm. This staff was part of an entire series of sacred objects crucial for the foundation of dynasties; the Tnucucua staff goes together with the Sacred Bundle, and they are combined with sacred objects denominated Xipe staff and Xipe Bundle. The Paper Roll (presumably for bloodletting), the Fire Drill instruments, and the Arrow belong in the same group; all were given in Heaven to the Divine Founders and the visionary priests.30 The Fire Drill is shown as an arrow without a point, to be distinguished from the Sacred Arrow with point, which can be combined with a shield and a Ñuhu figure as “Deity of Weapons” or “War Spirit.”31
5.11. Lord 5 Alligator welcomed by Lord 10 Flower and Lord 7 Reed before entering the temple (Codex Ñuu Tnoo–Ndisi Nuu, 8-II).
5.12. Nuttall 25 (left) Lord 5 Alligator meeting the council and making a blood offering in the Temple of Heaven.
It was in Ñuu Tnoo’s Temple of Heaven that the Sacred Bundle was kept, together with the Board and Drill for the new fire ceremonies and the Roll of Paper for bloodletting. It is safe to assume that Lord 9 Wind ‘Stone Skull’ had dedicated special efforts to enlarge and embellish this sanctuary, and it became the stage for a special ceremony in the year 13 House (1025). The ritual started on the day 7 Movement, six days before the day 13 House of the year 13 House (Codex Yuta Tnoho reverse, VI-1). The calendar term 13 House is simaa in Dzaha Dzaui, which is also the word for “owl.” This particular year 13 House is painted as ‘13 Owl.’ The day sign ‘Owl’ was present in the Classic Beni Zaa (Zapotec) calendar at Monte Albán. The day 13 Owl occurs on the cornerstone of the main Late Preclassic platform at Yucu Nindavua (Huamelulpan), which suggests that it has an ancient ritual significance. Perhaps its use on this occasion connotes the idea that the ritual was done in ancient style. The year 13 Owl would have been the end of a cycle of 52 years (the xiuhmolpilli of the Nahuas) if that cycle had started with the year 1 Rabbit. The codices indeed associate the year 1 Rabbit day 1 Rabbit as a sacred foundation date with the glyph we identify as Monte Albán. This particular occurrence of the year 13 House also commemorated the dramatic war events of the year 12 Flint (972) one cycle earlier, which saw the final demise of the Monte Albán order and the foundation of Ñuu Tnoo’s rise to power. At the same time, the owl announces death; its frontal image, looking straight at us, works as a memento mori and thus prepares us for a fatal outcome of the narrative.
5.13a. Final part of the first dynasty of Ñuu Tnoo. Presentation of Lord 5 Alligator (Codex Yuta Tnoho, verso, IV; reading boustrophedon, starts at lower right-hand corner).
5.13b. Priestly functions and marriage of Lord 5 Alligator (Codex Yuta Tnoho, verso, V; reading boustrophedon, starts at upper right-hand corner). Notice the year 13 Owl.
The person selected to carry out the important and ancient Owl Year ritual was Lord 5 Alligator, a young man or even a boy at the time. His parents were Lord 13 Dog ‘White Eagle–Venus’ and Lady 1 Vulture ‘Rain Skirt’ (i.e., ‘Rain Grace’ or ‘Grace of Ñuu Dzaui’). Lord 13 Dog was a son of Lord 2 Water, who may have participated in the enthronement ritual of Lord 8 Wind ‘Twenty Eagles’ in Yucuñudahui, and Lady 10 Alligator, sister of the important priest Lord 2 Dog from Ñuu Ndaya (discussed earlier). This couple had founded a noble house at River of the Drum and the Red Band.32 Lady 1 Vulture ‘Rain Skirt’ belonged to the dynasty of another neighboring settlement: Ñuu Ñañu, the old fortress of Yahua (Tamazola).33
Lord 5 Alligator was given the name ‘Rain Sun,’ Dzavui Ndicandii, which indicates his charismatic powers and his direct relationship with the main deities. His first activities were associated with the day 10 Flower, that is, the name day of the prince of Ñuu Tnoo, who, born in the year 6 Flint (992), was now thirty-three years old. We suspect that this date is mentioned here because it was chosen for Lord 10 Flower’s succession as ruler of Ñuu Tnoo—his father, Lord 9 Wind ‘Stone Skull,’ would have been eighty-three years old in 1025 and was probably deceased.
Some days before the day 10 Flower of the year 13 House, but in direct preparation for that day, Lord 5 Alligator and his parents had been visited by three priests of the Supreme Council of Ñuu Tnoo.34 They asked his parents’ permission to take the boy to perform priestly duties in the temple, putting before him a sacrificial knife, together with piciete and blankets.
The titles of these officials vary slightly in the different sources. Their main elements are:
1. ‘Smoke’ or ‘Cloud’ (huico), which we can read as a representation of huico, “feast,” but also as a reference to the ritual fire or shamanic ecstasy.
2. Palm leaves (ndaha yutnu ñuu), which allude to the bloodletting rite and to offerings in general.
3. A Sacred Arrow (Nduvua Ñuhu), defined as such by a Ñuhu head. The associated priest was probably the keeper of the Sacred Arrow, which may have been the one brought down from Heaven by Lord 9 Wind ‘Plumed Serpent.’35
The meaning of the scene becomes clearer when we read the Relación Geográfica of Ñuu Tnoo (Tilantongo), which describes a Council of Four whose function it was to assist the ruler with making decisions in matters of government, justice, economy, and cult. One of the four acted as president and determined the waging of war. They wore long, painted capes of cotton (Acuña 1984, II: 233). We think young Lord 5 Alligator ‘Rain Sun’ was asked to become a priest so he could later join the Supreme Council of Four. He was offered the title of Death Priest, that is, the one responsible for contact with the deceased Ancestors and probably the head of the Council, a function similar to that of the cihuacoatl among the Mexica.36
First, Lord 5 Alligator went to the Mountain of Plants and Flowers to offer a xicolli as tribute to Lord 7 Movement, a Rain Spirit and Divine Ancestor of the dynasty of Town of the Xipe Bundle.37 The visit was made on the appropriate name day of the Spirit: 7 Movement, which at the same time marked the beginning of the ritual period leading up to day 13 House or Owl. On that same day, Lord 5 Alligator went to the River of the Serpent (Yute Coo), the ancestral place of the ruling dynasty of Ñuu Tnoo, and offered there another xicolli. Then he went to the Temple of Heaven in Ñuu Tnoo, where he was welcomed and ceremonially saluted by two priests: Lord 10 Flower ‘Stone Man, born from the Earth’ and Lord 7 Reed ‘White Star,’ who offered him fire and blew the ceremonial conch.38 Lord 10 Flower was probably the ruler of Ñuu Tnoo at the time.39 The given names of the two priests on this occasion seem to be titles that recall the two groups of warriors the Lords of Yuta Tnoho had to overcome: the Stone Men and the Celestial warriors (the Mimixcoa). We take their presence here as an indication of a cult drama, which included a representation and commemoration of that primordial struggle.
Then, still on the day 7 Movement of the year 13 House (1025), Lord 5 Alligator burned incense for the Sacred Bundle in the Temple of Heaven. He became a priest there and in following years passed through the successive ranks of priesthood, symbolized by different xicollis and sacrificial knives he received—the first in the year 6 Reed (1031), the second in the year 10 Reed (1035), and the third in the year 1 Reed (1039). The ritual day to enter a new period of four years’ service was, logically, 1 Alligator, the beginning of the count of 260 days. As the passage to a higher level of priesthood occurred in a year Reed, we can reconstruct the beginning of this ceremonial hierarchy in the year 1 Reed day 1 Alligator.
After an initial period of six years (probably composed of two “preparatory” years and a regular rank period of four years) and then three successive rank periods of four years each, that is, after a total of eighteen years in the Temple of Heaven, he had reached the highest level. The elderly Smoke Priest sent a younger priest to him with a garland of flowers, indicating that he could leave the priesthood and marry. It is safe to assume that Lord 5 Alligator ‘Rain Sun’ by then had become an extremely important figure, with great charisma and political power.
In the year 5 Reed (1043) or the following year 6 Flint (1044), but in any case on the day 7 Eagle, a sacred day for the Ñuu Tnoo dynasty, Lord 5 Alligator married his first wife, Lady 9 Eagle ‘Cacao Flower,’ who belonged to the Beni Zaa dynasty of Zaachila.40
Several children were born from this first marriage: (1) in the year 7 House (1045) Lord 12 Movement ‘Blood Jaguar,’ who became keeper of the Sacred War Arrow; (2) in the year 9 Reed (1047) Lady 6 Lizard ‘Jewel Fan,’ who later married Lord 11 Wind from the Town of the Xipe Bundle; (3) in the year 10 Flint (1048) Lord 9 Movement ‘Hummingbird’; and (4) in the year 10 House (1061) Lord 3 Water ‘Heron.’41
In the year 10 House (1061), Lord 5 Alligator ‘Rain Sun’ married his second wife, Lady 11 Water ‘Blue Parrot,’ a princess from the Mountain of the Eye (Face) and Tail. This place has not been identified. It could be a subject community nearby, such as Ñuu Ndito, “Pueblo de Mirador,” mentioned as estancia in the Relación Geográfica of Ñuu Tnoo, but it could also be a somewhat more distant independent village-state, such as the Beni Zaa town of Quia Loo, “Mountain of the Eye,” in Nahuatl known as Ixtepec (today Mixtepec), south of Zaachila.42
The father of the bride, Lord 9 Flint ‘Stone Man Skull,’ was a descendant of Lady 6 Water and Lord 6 Death, who had been attendants at the great marriage ceremony of Lady 3 Flint at Monte Albán and at one of the enthronement ceremonies of Lord 8 Wind ‘Twenty Eagles.’ He may also have been the same as Lord 9 Flint ‘Skull’ who belonged to the “descendants of the Sacred Mother Tree of Yuta Tnoho” and had acted as a priest in the Temple of Death of Ñuu Ndaya. If so, he was a companion of Lord 9 Wind ‘Wind, Skull,’ who may have been Lord 9 Wind ‘Stone Skull’ of Ñuu Tnoo.43
Lady 11 Water had been married before to Lord 3 Wind ‘Jaguar Warrior–Bird with Fish Tail,’ who came from Town of Stones and was the son of Lady 10 House ‘Quechquemitl of Stone’ (‘Virtue of Town of Stones’). With this man she had a son: Lord 8 Flower ‘Flint-Hair.’44
Lord 5 Alligator ‘Rain Sun’ and Lady 11 Water ‘Blue Parrot’ married in the year 10 House (1061) on the day 6 Deer.45 Their children were Lord 8 Deer ‘Jaguar Claw,’ born in the year 12 Reed (1063); Lord 9 Flower ‘Sacred Arrow,’ born in the year 3 Reed (1067); Lady 9 Monkey ‘Jewel Quetzal,’ born in the year 13 Flint (1064)46—she married Lord 8 Alligator ‘Blood Coyote,’ ruler of the great Death Town, Ñuu Ndaya (Chalcatongo); and Lady 12 Grass ‘Hand with Jewel and Fur,’ born in the year 4 House (1081), who married Lord 3 Reed, a visionary priest from Tiyuqh of Monte Albán.47
The birth of Lord 8 Deer was marked by several symbolic occurrences, which announced his later importance. The first omen is represented as long plumed grass, which we find glossed as zacatl or acxoyatl in Nahuatl pictorial manuscripts. This may simply be an indicator that the grass was extraordinarily high that season or that there was a drought. But grass is also a symbol of poverty and oblivion and may indicate Lord 8 Deer’s relatively low birth status.48 On the other hand, grass is used in sacrifices and so may prognosticate ritual bloodshed. Later, the same symbol occurs as the hieroglyph of the place where Lord 8 Deer starts his huge campaign of conquests.
5.14. The marriages and children of Lord 5 Alligator; the birth and marriage of Lord 8 Deer (Codex Tonindeye, 26).
The second omen is represented as the head of the Rain God (Dzavui), emanating colored dots or other faces of the same deity. Perhaps an unexpectedly long period (twenty days?) of heavy rain is meant, an appropriate sign for the birth of someone whose actions would affect all of Ñuu Dzaui.
As a third sign, an eagle came down from heaven and ate from a series of baskets, possibly an augury of how bravery in war would gain great abundance. It also could be understood as a warning that an eagle might snatch away the good luck.
When we compare these signs with the predictions given for the day 8 Deer in the mantic manuscripts, such as Codex Yoalli Ehecatl (Borgia), we learn that the day Deer is under the patronage of the Rain God, which implies both destruction (such as inundation and lightning) and prosperity. The day 8 Deer in the 260-day cycle is also associated with images of destruction (a burning, collapsing palace or temple) and prosperity as a consequence of conquests (a warrior rising from a conch with jade beads). The day falls in the fourth trecena (13-day period), beginning with 1 Flower, which is dominated by the Old Coyote, God of Tricks and Conflicts. Its mantic symbols are the dancer, war, the fallen man, and the lamenting woman. In other words, the day pairs artistic capacity and astute resourcefulness in warfare with the danger of sudden downfall and painful emotional relationships with women, bringing suffering upon women as well as having painful consequences for the man.49
Among Lord 8 Deer’s ancestors, there were several links to protagonists of early Ñuu Dzaui history. He himself, however, was merely the first son of his father’s second wife. The marriages of Lord 5 Alligator and those of his children—probably arranged according to his wishes—tell us something about the political alliances of the High Priest. If we are correct in the identifications of places so far, we can conclude that Lord 5 Alligator’s marital policy was rather different from that of the ruling dynasty of Ñuu Tnoo. He sought associations not with Lord 8 Wind of Chiyo Yuhu but with the Beni Zaa region; his first wife was from the Xipe dynasty that ruled Zaachila, while his second wife may have come from Quia Loo. The wedding of Lady 6 Lizard ‘Jewel Fan,’ daughter from his first marriage, and Lord 11 Wind from the important Town of the Xipe Bundle, descendant of the primordial Lords of Yuta Tnoho and linked to the ancient rulers of Monte Albán, must have been a very important political event.
Similarly, a daughter from Lord 5 Alligator’s second marriage became the wife of a priest associated with the ceremonial center that still functioned at Monte Albán.
It is interesting that Lord 5 Alligator is frequently painted with a skull or skeletal jaw, which indicates his function as a death priest (a parallel to the Mexica cihuacoatl). His paternal grandmother had been the sister of the important priest Lord 2 Dog from Death Town (Ñuu Ndaya, Chalcatongo), and he also took a second wife who was the daughter of someone who had a “Skull” name and who may have been a priest in the Temple of Death in that same area. A daughter of this second marriage, Lady 9 Monkey ‘Jewel Quetzal,’ became the wife of a ruler of the same Death Town (Ñuu Ndaya). Therefore we believe Lord 5 Alligator played a crucial role in Ancestor worship. His political connections seem to have been with the Beni Zaa area, in particular with what remained of the ancient prestige and religious importance of Monte Albán to the east. He also had connections with Ñuu Ndaya to the south, the place where the Temple of Death was located, the Cave of Lady 9 Grass, where the ancient rulers of Monte Albán had been buried.
GENEALOGICAL SUMMARY, LORD 5 ALLIGATOR
Lord 2 Water + Lady 10 Alligator
Lord 13 Dog + Lady 1 Vulture (Ñuu Ñañu / Tamazola)
Lord 5 Alligator (entrance to the temple 1025)
First marriage with Lady 9 Eagle (Zaachila), in 1044
• Lord 12 Movement (b. 1045)
• Lady 6 Lizard (b. 1047) + Lord 11 Wind (Town of the Xipe Bundle)
Second marriage with Lady 11 Water (Quia Loo?), in 1061
• Lord 8 Deer (b. 1063)
• Lord 9 Flower (b. 1067)
• Lady 9 Monkey (b. 1064) + Lord 8 Alligator (Ñuu Ndaya)
DYNASTIC DEVELOPMENTS in ÑUU TNOO and AÑUTE
Meanwhile, another interesting development occurred. The princess 12 Jaguar, daughter of Lord 10 Flower, the ruler of Ñuu Tnoo, had married Lord 10 Reed, the brother of Lady 1 Vulture, Lord 5 Alligator’s mother. Then the elder brother of Lady 12 Jaguar, the crown prince Lord 12 Lizard, married the two daughters of that couple, that is, his own nieces and Lord 5 Alligator’s full cousins. This marital alliance seems to have been engineered when Lord 5 Alligator was already an important political figure, that is, from 1045 onward. As a consequence, in Ñuu Dzaui kinship terminology, Lord 5 Alligator became uncle to Lord 12 Lizard’s children, the first of whom, Lord 5 Movement ‘Smoke of Heaven,’ was heir to the throne of Ñuu Tnoo. The prince would have addressed his uncle (dzito), the former High Priest, as taa, “father.” The given name of the crown prince of Ñuu Tnoo seems to be a reference to the priestly title ‘Smoke’ or ‘Cloud’ in combination with a reference to the Temple of Heaven. Perhaps Lord 5 Movement was a member of the Supreme Council during his early years. Lord 12 Lizard’s other children were Lord 12 Water ‘Sky Jaguar,’ Lady 3 Movement ‘Fan of the Earth,’ and Lady 1 Flint ‘Jewel Face.’
The crown prince, Lord 5 Movement, first married a princess of Añute, Lady 4 Death ‘Jewel of the People.’ She belonged to the Ñuu Tnoo royal family through her father, Lord 10 Eagle, the younger brother of the Ñuu Tnoo ruler Lord 10 Flower and consequently an uncle of Lord 12 Lizard. Her mother was Lady 9 Wind, a daughter of Lord 8 Wind of Chiyo Yuhu. At first sight, the marriage of Lord 5 Movement and Lady 4 Death could be interpreted as a strengthening of the already existing ties between Ñuu Tnoo and Chiyo Yuhu. However, in reality it primarily reinforced the alliance between Añute and Ñuu Tnoo, and consequently Añute’s independence, at the expense of Chiyo Yuhu, which had formerly controlled the area. The marriage was a shrewd move, as it did not openly offend Lord 8 Wind but at the same time undermined his power.
The marriage produced no children. Lady 4 Death likely died shortly after the wedding because Lord 5 Movement remarried in the year 9 House (1073) on the day 2 Eagle. This was a tragic year for the Añute dynasty. On the day 8 Vulture, fifty-nine days before Lord 5 Movement’s second wedding, three princes died in sacrifice during a ritual corresponding to the Tlacaxipehualiztli of the Mexica. Their bodies were buried in the Death Temple of Ñuu Ndaya. We suspect that Lady 4 Death died during the same series of events.50 The reason behind the ritual killing and the implied warfare is not explained by the codices, but it may have been an early phase of the conflict that later erupted between Chiyo Yuhu on the one side and Ñuu Tnoo and Añute on the other.
In Ñuu Tnoo, the powerful leader of the Supreme Council, Lord 5 Alligator, had forged alliances with dynasties in the Beni Zaa area, outside the network of Chiyo Yuhu. His sons, especially young Lord 8 Deer, were being trained as warriors. Several battles had taken place in the year 7 Reed (1071). Unfortunately, we do not know for certain where they occurred. Among the conquered places was Rock of the Eagle, which may be the neighboring Ñuu Tiyaha (Tecomatlan) in the Yodzo Cahi–Atoco Valley, possibly within the influence sphere of Chiyo Yuhu.51
It is tempting to speculate that at this time the rivalry between Ñuu Tnoo and Chiyo Yuhu had developed into open armed conflict. This may have been the context in which the princes of Añute—logical allies of Ñuu Tnoo—had been taken prisoner (supposedly by Chiyo Yuhu troops) and sacrificed. If this is the case, we are dealing with a radical change in the pattern of alliances. Possibly old Lord 8 Wind and his designated heir had had second thoughts about the different dynastic lines descended from Lord 8 Wind; they had now established themselves in their own communities and were striving for independence. Añute was such a case. Originally, it seems to have been only a sanctuary. Its Founding Fathers were priests who had paid homage to Lord 8 Wind. But now Lady 9 Wind, his own daughter, had set up her mat and throne (kingdom) there and found a strong ally in her husband, brother of the ruler of Ñuu Tnoo. It was in the direct interest of those who wanted to maintain Chiyo Yuhu’s power to eliminate the couple’s children before they could establish themselves as rulers and confirm Añute’s independence.
When those princes were killed, only one daughter was left to the rulers of Añute: Lady 6 Monkey ‘Power of the Plumed Serpent.’ No year for her birth is given; she may have been born in the same year as the tragedy or some years before. She was put under the protection of the old priest Lord 10 Lizard ‘Precious Axe,’ a member of the Supreme Council of Añute, which helped her escape the violence against her family. Her very existence now became a matter of political controversy. As we will see, Lord 3 Lizard, son and designated heir of Lord 8 Wind of Chiyo Yuhu, did not recognize Lady 6 Monkey’s right to the kingdom of Añute. This behavioral pattern, in which brothers tend to overrule the rights of their female kin, is very recognizable in modern Ñuu Dzaui communities. In this case, the young girl’s rights were strongly defended by her father, Lord 10 Eagle, and, by extension, by the ruling family of Ñuu Tnoo.
For the moment, however, Chiyo Yuhu was able to impose its authority, thereby averting further escalation and open confrontation between Ñuu Tnoo and Chiyo Yuhu. Ñuu Tnoo’s crown prince, Lord 5 Movement ‘Smoke of Heaven,’ married a princess from Lord 8 Wind’s circle, Lady 2 Grass ‘Precious Quetzal’ from the community of Visible Stones, which belonged to Chiyo Yuhu.52 Lord 5 Movement did not become a ruler in Ñuu Tnoo. He went to live with his new wife in Valley of the Xipe Bundle, which had become a subject town of Chiyo Yuhu.53 This resettlement was likely arranged by Lord 8 Wind ‘Twenty Eagles’ so he could watch the prince’s activities very closely.
At the same time, Lord 5 Movement’s younger sister, Lady 1 Flint ‘Jewel Face,’ married Lord 6 Movement ‘Precious Bone,’ a son of Lord 8 Wind. The old marital alliance between Ñuu Tnoo and Chiyo Yuhu seemed to have been reestablished.
GENEALOGICAL SUMMARY
Añute
Lady 10 Deer (Añute) + Lord 8 Wind (Chiyo Yuhu)
Lady 9 Wind + Lord 10 Eagle (son of Lord 10 Flower, Ñuu Tnoo), married 1041
• Lady 4 Death + Lord 5 Movement (Ñuu Tnoo)
• three sons (taken prisoner and killed, 1073)
• Lady 6 Monkey
Ñuu Tnoo
Lord 10 Flower (Ñuu Tnoo) + Lady 2 Serpent (Chiyo Yuhu), married 1013
Lord 12 Lizard + his two nieces
Lord 5 Movement
First marriage with Lady 4 Death (Añute)
Second marriage with Lady 2 Grass, 1073
The BIRTH of LORD 2 RAIN ‘OCOÑAÑA’
In the year 11 Reed (1075), shortly before the birth of Lady 2 Grass’s first son, an omen revealed itself. On the day 9 Reed, a vision appeared in an obsidian mirror. An umbilical cord was seen; this was the announcement of the birth of a child. The cord was connected to day sign 9 Reed, the calendrical name of the Goddess called Itzpapalotl-Itzcueye by the Mexica, ‘Obsidian Butterfly, She of the Obsidian Skirt,’ that is, the Power of the Obsidian Arrow.54 Thus the vision stated that the child was going to be consecrated to that Goddess, to be under her spell and supervision. This was not a pleasant announcement because the Goddess 9 Reed could bring destruction. Her very name indicated a combination of fatality (symbolized by 9, the number of death) and war or conquest (the sign Reed being actually an arrow).
Six days later the child foreseen in the mirror was born: Lord 2 Rain ‘Twenty Jaguars’ (Ocoñaña). His given name seems to be modeled after ‘Twenty Eagles’ but at the same time was slightly different. His birth meant destruction; an arrow in flames, a sign for nduvua ñuhu, “arrows, fire,” that is, war, hit the palace of his parents in the territory of Chiyo Yuhu. Indeed, it is supposed that they died because no other children are mentioned. The aggression may have been caused by the wrath of Lord 8 Wind, who was extremely displeased at the birth of a successor to the throne of his rival. Yet the baby was saved by its faction of followers, and young Lord 2 Rain soon received the offering of royalty.55 Seven nobles saluted him in the year 12 Flint (1076) on the day 10 Lizard. The date has clear associations with a ritual event during the taking of power in Ñuu Dzaui: the days 7 Alligator and 8 Wind of the year 12 Flint are associated with the coming down of the Mimixcoa, or Star Spirits, who were taken captive by Founding Lords of the Ñuu Dzaui dynasties.56
5.15. The birth of Lord 2 Rain ‘Ocoñaña’ (Codex Ñuu Tnoo– Ndisi Nuu, 5-II).
Among the seven nobles who came to pay their respects to young Lord 2 Rain ‘Ocoñaña’ was Lord 10 Rabbit ‘Blood Jaguar.’ He was a prince from the Town of Sacrifice and Blood Mountain, where his father, Lord 9 House, son of Lord 8 Wind ‘Twenty Eagles,’ had founded a dynasty by marrying Lady 11 Alligator, daughter of the Sun God and a local princess.57 Born in the year 6 Reed (1031), Lord 10 Rabbit ‘Blood Jaguar’ was forty-five years old, his father’s eldest son and heir. Later he played a historical role as an adviser of Lord 2 Rain and an ally of Lord 8 Deer. His participation in offering the crown to young Lord 2 Rain in a time of a delicate rivalry between Ñuu Tnoo and Chiyo Yuhu qualifies him as a supporter of the rights of the Ñuu Tnoo dynasty and, consequently, as an opponent of the dictates of his paternal grandfather and his uncle, Lord 8 Wind and Lord 3 Lizard, respectively, from Chiyo Yuhu. This opposition may be a result of the same reasons we have seen in the case of Lady 9 Wind setting up her own mat and throne in Añute: the noble house to which Lord 10 Rabbit belonged may also have been interested in gaining independence from the old ruler of Chiyo Yuhu.
YOUNG LORD 8 DEER ‘JAGUAR CLAW’
After the death of Prince 5 Movement, Ñuu Tnoo’s political future looked hopeless. Lord 5 Alligator, who must have been around sixty years of age, likely dominated the site, although no information is given about the precise circumstances. We do not know if Lord 5 Movement’s father, Lord 12 Lizard, was still alive. Who, then, protected and controlled the young Lord 2 Rain ‘Ocoñaña,’ Lord 5 Alligator or Lord 8 Wind? The two old leaders had become open antagonists, and the latter seems to have had the advantage.
5.16a. After a genealogical section, old Lord 8 Wind is shown in a temple speaking to Lord 2 Rain ‘Ocoñaña’ (Codex Tonindeye, 7).
It was in these suspenseful days that Lord 8 Deer’s career began. As a son of Lord 5 Alligator’s second marriage, he had only played a marginal role until then. As a youngster he had participated in conquests, probably at the expense of Chiyo Yuhu. Trained as a warrior, he was now sixteen years old.
In the year 2 Reed (1079) on the day 10 Flower, Lord 8 Deer conquered the Valley of the Quetzal Feathers (or Valley of the Nobles). If this is in some way a reference to the Valley of Yodzo Cahi–Atoco (Yanhuitlan-Nochixtlan), with its central location in the Mixteca Alta, he encroached upon the territory of Chiyo Yuhu.58
Fifty-nine days after this victory, in the year 3 Flint (1080) on the day 4 Rain, that is, the second day of that year, we see Lord 8 Deer coming out of a cave. He had likely been preparing himself in a retreat, through fasting and bloodletting, for even more important actions. That same day, in another cave located at the foot of Big Mountain, a place of visions where dark vapors rose from the ground, he found a treasure, a chest with jewels. It was in the land of Lord 3 Reed, who later married Lord 8 Deer’s younger sister 12 Grass (who was not born until 1081). If Big Mountain here again represents Monte Albán, the found treasure may have been the valuable contents of a Classic tomb. We get the impression that Lord 8 Deer had left the conflict area of the Yodzo Cahi–Atoco Valley and was carrying out his ritual preparations in a safer place.
5.16b. After listening to the words of Lord 8 Wind, Lord 2 Rain ‘Ocoñaña’ is seated in a temple, surrounded by warriors (Codex Tonindeye, 8).
The next day, 5 Flower, a day of feasts and rejoicing, Lord 8 Deer visited Lady 4 Rabbit ‘Precious Quetzal’ and her husband, Lord 10 Flower ‘Bow Tail,’ in Mouth of Dark Speckled Mountain. This town has not been identified with certainty. The sign contains a mouth, which indicates that the toponym starts with the locative prefix a-, a customary convention in the Yodzo Cahi–Atoco region (Smith 1973a: 41–42). The dark speckled material may represent cuchi, “gravel.” Acuchi, “Place of Gravel,” is the Dzaha Dzaui name of San Jerónimo Sosola.59
As the sister of both Lord 12 Lizard (ruler of Ñuu Tnoo) and Lord 10 Eagle (ruler of Añute), Lady 4 Rabbit ‘Precious Quetzal’ was an important political personality. It is to her that Lord 8 Deer gave the honorific title “Flower of the Valley of the Quetzal Feathers,” which commemorated his victory over Valley of the Quetzal Feathers one year earlier. Such an action implies that he handed over the right to receive the tributes of the conquered area to Lady 4 Rabbit.60 This suggests that Lord 12 Lizard had died by then and that the young warrior Lord 8 Deer was therefore turning to the sister of the defunct king, Lady 4 Rabbit, as next in the royal blood line of Ñuu Tnoo. The absence of any reference to the infant Lord 2 Rain ‘Ocoñaña’ further suggests that he was still in the custody of Lord 8 Wind ‘Twenty Eagles.’
On the same day, 5 Flower, Lord 8 Deer retired to still another cave, which was a sanctuary (dzoco ñuhu), to venerate the Sacred Bundle, guarded there as in a temple.61 Afterward, still on the day 5 Flower, Lord 8 Deer paid his respects to the Sacred Bundle in the Temple of Heaven of the nearby Town of the Pointed Objects (Yucu Ndeque, Huauclilla?). This temple was dedicated to 1 Death—the appropriate day for offerings to the Sun God and to the Great Mother of the Dynasty, Lady 1 Death.62
The Sun God is generally represented in full and associated with a Precious Jade temple; the Bundle, instead, suggests an ancestral cult. So it is plausible that here Lord 8 Deer is venerating the great-great-grandmother of Lady 4 Rabbit. But at the same time, he seems to have made vows to the Sun God as preparation for the ball game that follows. The day 5 Flower is also dedicated to one of the spirits of the warriors who died in battle or sacrifice (called Tonalleque in Nahuatl).63
Two persons, dressed in xicollis, arrive at the Temple of Heaven, throwing piciete (wild tobacco) powder up in the air and in front of them. A person associated with Mountain of a Blood Stream is then shown giving instructions. Unfortunately, the heavy damage makes it impossible to determine precisely what is going on. We suspect that during these ceremonies, Lord 8 Deer established friendly contacts with the princes from Mountain of Blood and Sacrifice who were later going to assist him at several occasions.
The third day of the next year, the day 6 Serpent in the year 4 House (1081), had special significance for Lord 8 Deer, as it functioned as the eve of his name day and was dedicated to a “birthday” ritual (apparently the intermediate 7 Death was not considered a good day for such a celebration). On this occasion, Lord 8 Deer engaged in a ball game. His opponents were the Sun God, Lord 1 Death, and the Venus God, Lord 1 Movement, probably represented by human impersonators.64 The ball court was associated with a river of sacred fish close to Dark Speckled Mountain. The story does not tell us what Lord 8 Deer had bet in this game, but the stakes must have been high, perhaps even involving his life. But he won the ball game, and as a reward, immediately afterward his former opponents helped him conquer the Jewel Stone of Ash River (Yaa Yuta, Nejapa), a precious object associated with the West, the realm of the descending Sun and Venus.
5.17. Neighboring towns of the Mixteca Baja: Ñuu Dzaui (Huajuapan), Toavui (Chila), Yuhua Cuchi (Guaxolotitlan), and Ñuu Niñe (Tonalá) (Codex Yuta Tnoho, 3).
As Lord 8 Deer’s “conquest” took place on the same day as the ball game (6 Serpent), no trip to the Nejapa River is implied. The action has a symbolic significance. By winning the game, Lord 8 Deer made Sun and Venus, both Patrons of war, his allies. With their help he obtained a stone that contained the precious power of the West. The Goddess of the West, or the Grandmother of the River (Sitna Yuta), the old Lady 1 Grass is associated with fertility and procreation.65 The precise significance of this precious stone of the West escapes us, but we suppose it was an object of divine, magical power, the possession of which would guarantee victory.
5.18. The birth scene of Lord 8 Deer (Codex Ñuu Tnoo–Ndisi Nuu, 7-V).
In Chiyo Yuhu thirty-four days later, on the day 1 Rain of the same year 4 House (1081), a day dedicated to the deified Women who died in childbirth (called Cihuateteo in Nahuatl), Lord 8 Wind ‘Twenty Eagles’ summoned young Lord 2 Rain ‘Twenty Jaguars’ before him. The prince was now six years old and ready to do his first priestly service. He wore the priestly xicolli for the occasion and made the gesture of submission, crossing his arms and bowing his head to Lord 8 Wind. We harbor no more doubts about who had control over him. A protruding tooth characterizes Lord 8 Wind ‘Twenty Eagles’ as an old man; indeed, he must have been far into his eighties by then. He spoke an elaborate discourse to the prince, giving him strict orders and a jewel in a cotton ball to attend to.
In reality, this was a coup against his rivals in Ñuu Tnoo and Añute. Lord 8 Wind’s plan was clear: the crown prince of Ñuu Tnoo was to be put away in temple service while an attack was prepared on Añute, the rebellious vassal state. Lord 8 Wind’s son and heir, Lord 3 Lizard, headed the troops, marching toward Añute during the following days and attacking the town on the day 4 Wind (only three days after the day 1 Rain of the meeting between Lord 8 Wind and Lord 2 Rain ‘Ocoñaña’). The king, Lord 10 Eagle, however, beat off the attack; he is shown victoriously grabbing the aggressor’s hair and stabbing him with his spear. It is possible that Lord 3 Lizard lost his life during this assault.66
This was the violent climax of the long-smoldering rivalry. The scene clearly shows the division between the two parties: on one side Lord 3 Lizard and his father, Lord 8 Wind, as ruler of Chiyo Yuhu and on the other Lord 10 Eagle, prince of the Ñuu Tnoo dynasty and ruler of Añute, defending the interests of his wife and daughter against the ambitions of his in-laws. In the background we see the political design of the old high priest Lord 5 Alligator in Ñuu Tnoo, who had never submitted to Lord 8 Wind but had set up a rival network of personal alliances.
5.19. Lord 8 Deer coming out of a cave and visiting Lady 5 Flower (Codex Ñuu Tnoo– Ndisi Nuu, 9-V).
In the meantime, Prince 2 Rain ‘Ocoñaña’ was confined to a Temple on top of Mountain of the Red Caves and the Red Ball Court, surrounded by the armed warriors of Lord 8 Wind. The ceremonial date associated with that temple was year 10 Flint day 1 Eagle, which is not a moment within the lifespan of Lord 2 Rain but the sacred date of the West, especially dedicated to Lady 1 Eagle, Sitna Yuta, “Grandmother of the River,” the Patron Deity of that direction.67 The fact that he was held in custody by warriors is omitted in Añute historiography. Instead, Codex Añute shows Lord 2 Rain approaching a cave above a river where a jewel was kept, named “Heart of the People of the Rain God.” This is clearly the oracle cave in Ñuu Ndecu (Achiutla), where a jade statue of the Plumed Serpent was kept in a Sacred Bundle.68 We cannot be sure that the two scenes refer to the same place and action. Thus whereas one version stresses that young Lord 2 Rain was put away and limited to priestly duties, as was proper for his age, but was surrounded by warriors, that is, was a prisoner of Lord 8 Wind, the other version gives a more positive picture, suggesting that he merely went to ask for an oracle, that is, to find a way out of the major political crisis of the moment.
The prospects for the Ñuu Tnoo–Añute faction were even more troubled because of the death of their main leader, the high priest Lord 5 Alligator, who died on the day 9 Dog of the year 5 Rabbit (1082). The day had appropriate symbolic connotations: both the sign Dog and the number 9 are related to death and magic.69