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Archaeological Perspectives on Warfare on the Great Plains: Index

Archaeological Perspectives on Warfare on the Great Plains

Index

Index


Page numbers in italic indicate illustrations.

abandonment, 15; of Oneota tradition areas, 271–72. See also buffer zones; unoccupied zones

aboriginal crayon drawings, 38

accoutrements, depictions of, 82–90. See also face paint; headgear, headdresses; hairstyles

adoption, of captives, 41

age, and scalping patterns, 32, 322, 323–28

age-grade societies, Arikara, 330

aggregation, 5, 272, 283

agricultural societies, 245. See also horticultural villages

Alberta, 12, 52, 132

Alcova Redoubt, 237, 241, 258, 263, 264; bastions at, 254–55; dates of, 250–53; as fortification, 253–54; Shoshone and, 261–62; wall systems at, 246–50; weapons at, 255–57

Algonkian (Algonquian) speakers, 163, 273

Alkali Statin, 346

alliances, 27–28, 131, 273, 293, 300; Middle Missouri, 299, 301, 314–15

American Bottom, Oneota in, 270, 272

Americans. See Euroamericans

Andrews Lake, 15

animal pelts, 100; depictions of, 71, 88–89

animal tails, depictions of, 71, 85, 86, 87

Annis Village, fortifications at, 159, 173, 174

Anoka phase, 297

ANOVA tests, of Crow Creek scalping patterns, 323–29

Antelope Creek sites, 18, 19, 26

Apaches, 16, 203, 233, 234, 235, 260

Apple River, Oneota on, 271

Arapaho, 50, 56, 57, 260, 337, 342

archaeological record, 361; evidence in, 6, 267–68

Archaic period, 10, 64, 153

architecture. See defense(s), defensive architecture; fortifications

Arikara, 18, 27, 28, 172, 299, 330; attacks on, 120, 133; trade networks, 289–91, 292; women’s roles, 331, 332–33. See also Crow Creek village

Arkansas, 26

Arkansas River, 234; and Etzanoa, 197–98, 199; Late Prehistoric consolidation, 232–33; Wichita villages on, 200–206, 212, 216

armor: depictions of, 38, 42, 46; horse, 47–48, 50, 51, 52–54, 56, 63, 103, 111, 126–27, 128

arms. See weapons

arrows: depictions of, 40, 44, 46, 47, 95; wounds caused by, 11–12, 13, 15, 29, 159, 271

artifact distribution, at battlefield sites, 349–50; in ditches, 184–85

Arzberger site, 15, 20, 317

Assiniboine, 50, 54, 63, 289

Athabaskan/Athapaskan speakers, 26, 259

Atherton Canyon site, 115, 117–18(n1); arms and accoutrements at, 70–82; battle scenes at, 91–96; dress at, 82–90; warriors at, 68–70, 87, 90–91, 106–10, 118(n4), 119(n10)

atlatls, rock art depictions of, 12, 47, 64

attackers, vs. defenders, 194–96

attacks, 42, 120, 135; on Crow Creek village, 206–8; on fortified sites, 145–47, 194–96; triggers for, 28–29; on Wichita villages, 202, 203, 211, 213, 214–15; in winter counts, 128, 137–38

Austin phase, cemeteries, 11–12

autobiographies, warrior-art tradition as, 122–23

Avonlea culture, 11, 258

Avonlea points, 258–59

Avonlea site, 259

axes, 148, 159

Aztalan, 269

Bad-Cheyenne division, 301; settlement pattern in, 306, 307, 309, 312, 314

Bad Heart Bull, Amos, Lakota Victory Dance, 127

baffle gates, 8, 9, 15, 176, 244, 359

Bahm mound, 11

Baker, Jim, 57, 64

Ballard carbines, 339

bands, 129, 299, 300

Barnwell, John, 146

barriers, in villages, 150, 154

bastions, 8, 9, 15, 20, 154, 155, 156, 176, 179, 218, 242, 244, 359; at Alcova Redoubt, 254–55; Middle Missouri sites, 169, 171, 180, 183, 277, 280; Mississippian sites, 158, 159

battlefields, 6, 19, 33, 152; Mud Springs and Rush Creek, 339, 349–51, 352, 353

battle formations, 33, 115–16, 277; rock-art depictions of, 12, 13, 71, 75

battles, 57, 120, 164; Crow-Blackfeet, 6, 62; descriptions of, 101–3; Pierre’s Hole, 257–58; rock art depictions of, 91–96, 115; in winter counts, 128, 129, 131–32, 135–36

battle scenes, in rock art, 42, 44, 45, 51, 52, 57, 58, 70, 109–10, 115

beads, blue glass, 252, 253

Bear Coming Out, 80

Bear Gulch site (24FR2), 45, 55, 115; arms and accoutrements depicted at, 70–82; battle scenes at, 91–96; dress depicted at, 82–90; V-neck warriors at, 98–99, 117, 119(n10); war parties in, 106–10; warriors and weapons depicted on, 67, 68–70, 90–91, 118(n4); shield warriors at, 49, 87, 109

bears, on shields, 80

Bear’s Arm, 115

bears ears headdresses, 85

Benick Ranch site, 11

Berlandier, Jean Louis, 213, 215

Besant points, 12

Bethune burial, 11

Big Bend division/region, 171, 301; settlement pattern in, 306–7, 309, 312, 314

Big Foot, 122

Big Goose Creek site, 260

Big Horn Basin, 62

Bighorn County site, 67, 69

Bighorn-sheep traps, clubs used at, 76, 79

Big Sioux River, Oneota on, 272

bioarchaeology, 318. See also osteological evidence

biographic art, 104–5, 106; historic period, 116–17

bird bundles, depictions of, 88, 89

Bird Rattle, 58

bison, 5–6, 18, 21, 50; hide/robe trade, 212, 234, 235, 288; tails of, 85, 86, 87

bison hunting, 22, 126, 132–33, 197, 203, 233, 261, 284; fortified sites, 208–9; trade and, 234, 235

Blackfeet, 38, 50, 56, 62, 84, 260; and V-neck warriors, 98–99

Blackfoot, 6, 50, 60; warrior depictions, 68–69, 98–99, 119(n10); winter counts, 123, 128, 132, 135–40

Black Hills, 337; rock art in, 127, 133

Black Kettle, 337

Blasky mound, 11

blockades, trade, 289

Blood, on Musselshell River, 50, 54

Blood Run site complex, 272

Bloom Mound, 19, 15, 28

Blue Earth area, Oneota in, 272

bodies, 10; dismembered, 15, 16, 24. See also skeletons

Bodmer, Karl, 37; illustrations by, 77, 87, 90, 118(n5)

Boland site, 165, 167

Bold Counselor phase, 269–70

bone-chemistry analysis, 18

bones, 7–8; isolated, 25. See also osteological evidence; skeletons

bonnets: bison-horn, 101; war, 99

boundaries/borders, ethnic and cultural, 26, 356

Boundary Mound, 10

bowmen, at Bear Gulch site, 71, 118(n4)

bows, 5, 40, 171; rock art depictions of, 12, 38, 47, 71

bows and arrows, 40, 64, 72, 100, 127, 157, 164; at Alcova Redoubt, 256–57; and palisade construction, 158–59; rock art depictions, 38, 47, 71, 96, 118(n4), 125

bow-spears: decoration of, 90, 91; depictions of, 77–79, 80, 97–98, 118(n6)

brave deeds, 99; records of, 121–22

breastworks, 257

Bridwell site (41CB27), 231

Brule, 17

Bruner Ranch, 128

Bryson-Paddock site (34KA5), 193, 209, 218, 212, 234, 235; defensible location of, 200–201; ditches at, 211, 219–24, 231; fortification at, 202, 203, 204, 205–6, 216; semi-subterranean structure at, 224–27, 228–30

Buffalobird-woman, 172

buffer zones, 27; Central Mississippi River valley, 272–73; Middle Missouri, 168, 169–70, 298–99, 307, 309

burials, 7, 10, 11–12, 162. See also massacres; skeletons

Bushman, social structure, 357–58

bustles, feather, 85–87, 100

Caddoan speakers, 25, 26, 27, 145, 149, 169, 170, 273

Cahokia, 30, 32, 169, 173, 270

calumet ceremony, 288, 358

Calumet of the Captain Ceremony, 300

camps, Cheyenne, 342–43

canals, at Mississippian sites, 161

Cannibal House site, 270

cannibalism, 14

Cannonball division, 301; settlement pattern in, 306, 309, 312, 314

captives, capturing, 4, 18, 103, 116, 120, 134–35, 145; depictions of, 46, 86; in winter counts, 133, 140; women, 41, 42, 43, 55–57, 99

Carboni site (24CB404), 44

cartridges, at battlefield sites, 339

Castile Landing site, 161

Castle Butte site, 69, 113, 114

Castle Gardens site, 67, 69, 86

casualties, 103; in winter counts, 129, 138–40

Catlin, George, 215; illustrations by, 77, 87

Cattle Oiler site, 180

causeways, 9, 359

cavalry: Plains Indian light, 345; US regiments, 347–49

Cayuga Lake, reconstructed village at, 166

cedar, 174

celebration, of warfare, 41–42, 43

celt wounds, at Crow Creek Village, 271

cemeteries, 6, 11–12, 239

Central Plains tradition, 32, 270, 271, 297, 359; ceramics, 259–60

ceramics, 18; at Alcove Redoubt, 251, 253; Late Prehistoric, 259–60; at Middle Missouri sites, 26, 27, 32, 300

ceremonial-tradition rock art, 12–13, 29; shield-bearing and V-neck warriors in, 66–67

Champlain, Samuel de, 164, 165–66

charnel houses, burning of, 269

Cherokees, attacks on Tawakoni by, 214–15

chevaux-de-frise obstacles, 170, 282

Cheyenne, 19, 57, 234, 260, 291; attacks by, 337–38; battles with US military, 32–33, 349–51; camp organization, 342–43; military societies, 343–45

Chickasaw, 215

chiefly militias, 154

children, 133, 145; as captives, 99, 116, 134–35; scalping of, 331–32

China, Warring States period, 194

Civil War, US frontier army, 345–49

clans, Middle Missouri, 299

climate changes, 163; Middle Missouri, 167–68, 169, 179

clubs, 40, 79, 157, 158, 159, 164; rock art depictions of, 12, 29, 64, 72, 76, 77, 78, 97, 125

Coalescent tradition, 15, 16, 26, 169, 298, 300; migration, 295, 297; trade networks, 284, 293–94

cobbles, as weapons, 255–56

Colorado, Ceremonial-tradition rock art, 12

Colorado Volunteers, 337

Comanches, 18, 20, 24, 203, 213, 215, 234, 260, 261, 356

combat, 4, 277; hand-to-hand, 7, 96, 102, 117, 164; preparation for, 336–37; ranks of warriors in, 115–16; rock-art depictions of, 12, 70, 93–94, 95, 96, 98–99, 106–9, 112, 113, 114, 126

communities: fortified, 6, 16; planned, 170–71

competition: for Euroamerican resources, 17–18; resource, 22, 169; trade, 289–90

confederations, 299

conflicts, 131, 197, 274, 316; archaeological studies of, 3–4; interpolity, 156–57; intracultural, 190–91; Late Prehistoric, 262–63; scenes of, 40; trade-related, 290–92; in winter counts, 128–30, 135–40

Congressional Medals of Honor, for Wounded Knee massacre, 121

conical lodges, depictions of, 58–59

consolidation: Oneota tradition, 271–73; of southern Plains villages, 232–33

constricted/complex entrances, 159, 167

Contact period, 9, 16–17, 18–19, 24; rock-art depictions, 13, 37–38, 54

Cooke, Philip, 348

Cooper, Douglas, 215

corn caches, Arikara, 133

Coronado expedition, 16, 197, 232

corporate action, pre-contact warfare as, 103, 109, 112, 117

cottonwood (Populus deltoides), in Middle Missouri villages, 171–72, 174

Cottonwood station (Fort McPherson), 346

Cottonwood Triangular points, 250, 258, 259

council circles, 16, 30

counting coup, 103, 116, 139; with bow-spears, 97–98; depictions of, 13, 41, 43, 55, 59–60, 62, 93, 94, 95, 96, 99, 105–6, 114, 121, 129, 132

coup sticks, 60, 77, 79

craft production, specialized, 284

crania, scalping patterns, 322–28, 331–32. See also skulls

Crawford Lake village, 166

Cree, on Musselshell River, 50, 54

Crenshaw site, 26

Crow, 6, 38, 41, 46, 56, 57, 60, 62, 118–19(nn7, 11), 132, 257, 260; on Musselshell River, 50, 55, 63

Crow Creek Sioux Tribe, 322

Crow Creek village, 15–16, 28, 180, 182, 197, 239; attack on, 206–8; massacre at, 121, 133, 135, 145–46, 169, 186, 206–7, 271, 295–96, 315, 316; radiocarbon dates, 22–23; scalping patterns at, 32, 320–21, 322–32

culture change, 274; archaeological evidence of, 267–68

curtain walls, 155–56, 242, 243

Dakota, winter counts, 123, 130, 131

Daly Petroglyphs (48CA58), 60–61, 62

dance, 40, 41, 42

darts, depictions of, 12

deaths, 5; Protohistoric, 240–41; in winter counts, 129, 138–40. See also massacres

decapitation, 271, 319; depictions of, 60–62; Woodland period, 10, 11

Decker site, 67, 69

Deer Creek site (34KA3), 200, 201, 202, 203, 205, 209, 212, 234, 235; fortifications, 204, 216, 217–18, 219

Deer Medicine Rocks (24RB401), 59

defeats, 5, rock-art depictions of, 58

defenders, vs. attackers, 194–96

defense(s), defensive architecture, 5, 6, 15, 151, 153, 175–76, 178–79, 240, 244–45, 257; construction and maintenance of, 19–20, 30–31, 149, 150; features of, 8–9, 154–56; Mississippian, 157–63. See also by type

deforestation, palisade construction and, 174

dehumanization, trophy-taking as, 330–31

demographics, 5, 7, 241, 276, 292; of Crow Creek victims, 322, 323–28

Denver, 346

Desert Side-Notch (DSN) points, 258, 259

DeSmet, Pierre-Jean, on bison-hide paintings, 121–22

Des Moines River, Oneota tradition, 271

Devil’s Canyon, Wichita village at, 215–16

diet, captives and, 18

Dillard site, 15

Dinwoody sites, 47

disease, 299; epidemic, 116, 134–35, 202, 203, 205, 234, 273

disembodied capture hands, in rock art, 86, 99, 105

ditches, 8, 9, 15, 20, 30, 145, 148, 150, 154, 157, 163, 215, 231, 242, 359; artifact distribution in, 184–85; at Bryson-Paddock site, 211, 219–30; Deer Creek site, 217–18; defensive, 178–79, 180–81, 277; Middle Missouri sites, 169, 181–84, 187, 188–89; Mississippian sites, 158, 159, 160; Neodesha Fort sites, 216–17; purpose of, 177–78; V-shaped, 155, 156, 176. See also trenches

documents, 37–38, 121; indigenous, 124–25

Dodd site, 182

Dog Soldier Society, 343

Donck, Adriaen van der, 165

Double Ditch site (32BL8), 180, 193

dress, rock art depictions of, 82–90

drought, 23, 24; Middle Missouri, 167, 179, 286; and resource competition, 22, 163

DSN. See Desert Side-Notch points

Dull Knife, 19

Duncan site (34WA2), 208, 231, 232; as trade center, 233–34

Durkin Village, 207, 315

Dutisné, Claude Charles, 216

earthlodges, useful life of, 171

earthlodge villages, 270; attacks on, 120, 129; as planned communities, 170–71; timber used in, 171–72

earthworks, 153, 154, 272; vs. fortifications, 188–89; on Middle Missouri, 180–84

Eastern Woodlands, self-bow, 158–59

Eastman, Charles and Mary, 121

East St. Louis site, 270

Eaton site, 165

EC. See Extended Coalescent tradition

economy, 17–18, 24, 119(n12). See also trade, trade networks

Edwards I site (34BK2), 208, 231, 232

egalitarian groups, violence, 238–39

Eleventh Ohio Volunteer Cavalry, 338

elites, 25, 192

Ellison’s Rock site, 69, 105

Ellsworth, Richard, 338

embankments, 154, 156; at Mississippian sites, 158, 159, 160

EMM. See Extended Middle Missouri villages

encientes, 153, 154, 242

enclosures: protective, 154–55; ritual, 153

enemies, 120, 130, 290, 294, 316; identifying, 26–27; rock art depictions of, 62, 133; on southern Plains, 197, 202, 203

English, trade, 290

epidemics, 116, 134–35, 273, 299; among Wichita, 202, 203, 234

Erie, ancestral, 165

Escanjaque, 197, 198, 199

ethnic warfare, 295–96, 315–16

ethnography, ethnohistory, 54, 123, 147, 164, 300; and rock art, 37–38, 104–6; of warfare, 101–2, 268, 286–87

Etowah, 174

Etzanoa, 197–98, 199–200

Euroamericans, 21, 116, 121, 146, 212; economy and violence, 17–18; in Montana, 38, 54

Europeans, 234; Middle Missouri trade, 287–88, 290; written observations by, 16–17

Evans, John T., 289

evil activities, depicted in rock art, 47

expeditions, of small war parties, 136–37

experimental archaeology, 165

Extended Coalescent (EC) tradition, 273, 296, 312

Extended Middle Missouri (EMM) villages, 169, 207–8, 296–97, 295, 307, 315, 316

face paint, rock-art depictions of, 81, 88

falcon-warrior imagery, 25

families, Middle Missouri villages, 299

farmers, farming, 6, 13, 163, 190; fortified sties, 26–27, 145; Middle Missouri, 15–16, 167; war and status, 24–25; Wichita, 199–200, 205

Fay Tolton site (39ST11), 14, 20, 25, 168, 316; ditch at, 182, 183; skeletal trauma at, 186–87

fear, of Other, 179

feathers, 84; in bustles, 85–87, 100; in flags, 90–91, 98

feet, removal of, 12, 24, 271, 321

females, scalping patterns, 322–30, 333–34

fending sticks, depictions of, 40

Fetterman fight, 129

feuding, Middle Missouri villages, 168

fighting postures, in rock art, 37, 41, 42

fighting units, depictions of, 91–92, 100–101, 106–10

fire, 105, 158, 204, 276, 360

Fire Heart Creek site, 180

Five Guys Petroglyph (24ML394), 51

flags: feather, 90–91; weapon, 99

flaked stone, Iroquoian sites, 165

flanked designs, in fortified villages, 148

Flatheads, 38, 46, 50

floods, earthworks and, 184

fluffs, feather or hair, 91, 98

Footprint site, 15

foragers. See hunter-gatherers

force projection bases, 347

forces: size and power of, 194–96, 206–7; in Southern Plains interactions, 203, 204, 209

Fordville mound, 11

Fort Clark (Mitu’tahato’s), 291

Fort Frontenac, scurvy at, 146–47

fortifications, fortified sites, 6, 8–9, 10, 14, 17, 19–20, 145, 175–76, 190, 191, 242, 359; construction and maintenance of, 30–31, 147–48, 149, 172–73, 193; defensive, 5, 179; with ditches, 181–84; in eastern North America, 153–54; features of, 154–56, 243–45; increased building of, 156–57; Iroquois, 163–67; landforms and, 151–52; Middle Missouri region, 15, 34, 277–78, 280–83, 306–7, 309, 312, 314–15, 316, 317; military and political power, 152–53, 194–96; Mississippian, 25, 157–63; Plains Village, 16, 167–72; purposes of, 192–93; of seasonal camps, 208–9; sieges of, 146–47, 257–58; social and economic conditions, 245–46; social structure and, 149–50; on southern Plains, 231–33, 235; trade networks and, 285–86; Wichita, 200–206, 211–16. See also refuge sites

Fort Laramie (Wyo.), 346; troops from, 337, 338–39

Fort McPherson (Cottonwood), 346

Fort Mitchell (Nebr.), 346; troops from, 337, 338–39

Fort Musselshell, 55, 60; captive women at, 56–57

Fort Randall division, 301; settlement pattern in, 306, 307, 309, 312

Fort Robinson, Dull Knife’s escape from, 19

Fortune site, 161

fox pelts, depictions of, 88

French, 165, 216, 290; bison hide trade, 212, 235; on southern Plains, 202, 203, 234

fur trade, 18, 38, 273, 288, 289

gambling, on Musselshell River, 54

games, competitive, 40

Garcia, Andrew, 64; on Musselshell tribes, 54, 55

Garza phase, 231

gates, gateways, 154, 158, 167, 242, 244

Gateway site, 69, 109

Gebusi, 239

gender, scalping patterns and, 32

genocide, intervillage, 163

Glenwood sites, 32

Goffena site (24ML408), 51, 52

Good, Battiste, winter count of, 126

Gore Pit site, 10

Grand-Moreau division, 301; settlement pattern in, 307, 309, 312, 314

Grapevine Creek site, 243, 257

Grass Dance, 41

Grattan fight, 129

Gray Burial site, 10

Great Basin, Numic speakers from, 259

Great Bend aspect communities, 16, 232

Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE), Shoshone materials in, 261

Great Oasis groups, 13

Great Osage groups, and Wichita, 202, 203

Great Platte River Road, 346

Gros Ventre, 76; on Musselshell River, 50, 54, 56–57

group identity, 149

Groves phase, 270

Gumby site (24GV139), 45, 51

guns, 38, 287; depictions of, 40, 43, 47, 51, 127; on southern Plains, 203–4, 234; in warfare, 64, 103–4

Hadza, 239

hairstyles, 333; rock art depictions, 82, 84–85

Hand of God motif, 118–19(n7); on shields, 80–81, 87

handprints, in rock art, 46

hands: disembodied capture, 86, 99; removal/taking of, 12, 24, 46, 271, 321

Hanging Valley site, 10

hatchets, 40, 47, 91

hats, in rock art depictions, 38

head gear, headdresses, depictions of, 52, 66, 82, 84–85, 101

heads: severed, 46, 60–62, 126, 269

Heart River sites, 279, 293; fortifications, 280, 282–83; trade, 284, 285–86, 292

Helb site, 9, 15, 359

heraldic designs, on shields, 66, 67, 80–81, 116

Hewlett South site (48CK1544), 61

Hidatsa, 28, 41, 102–3, 118–19(n7), 299; trade, 289, 290–91

Hidatsa-Crow, Spring Boy and Lodge Boy myth, 61

hide/bison robe paintings [bison hide paintings], 93, 120, 121–22, 123

High Rise Village, 251

Hilej site, 67, 69

Historia (Obregon), on Pecos, 16–17

Historic period, 76, 84, 85, 92, 99; biographic art, 116–17; combat scenes, 110, 113, 114; warfare, 101–2, 119(n12)

history, 32; Lakota, 123–24. See also oral histories/narratives

Hiwassee Island site, 173

Ho-Chunk, 130

home stations, US Army, 346–47

homicides, hunter-gatherer, 238–39

honors, earned, 99–100

Hopewell culture, 10

horned headdresses, 52

Horned Headgear site (24ML508), 52, 63

horse bonnet, 52

horses: armored, 17, 38, 47–48, 50, 51, 52–54, 56, 63, 64, 103, 110–14, 128, 287, 290, 348; in battle scenes, 45, 46; introduction of, 260–61; rock-art depictions, 12, 37, 43, 45, 84, 126–27; on southern Plains, 204, 234

horse stealing/raiding, 17, 46, 54, 55, 120, 135, 137; depictions of, 42, 114, 132

horticultural villages, 13, 14, 120; Middle Missouri, 27, 34, 169–71

horticulture, appearance of, 22

Hot Dance, 41

hot-rock cooking, 22

Howard, James, 123

howitzers, mountain, 352

Hueco (Waco) subdivision, 212, 213

Huff site, 15, 182, 282, 359

human remains, 14, 159

hunter-gatherers, 3, 6, 24, 163, 190, 237, 284, 360; fortified villages, 16, 26–27, 168, 170, 208–9; small-scale, 357–58; subsistence production, 21–22; violence, 238–40

hunting, 40, 47; bison, 22, 126, 132–33, 197, 203, 233, 234, 235, 261

hunting territories, competition for, 18, 120, 132–33

Huron Confederacy, 146

Huronia village, 166

Hyde, George, 123

IC. See Initial Coalescent sites

identity, 5, 65, 149, 299

Illinois (people), 203

Illinois (state), Oneota, 273

Illinois River valley, Oneota, 269–70, 271

IMM. See Initial Middle Missouri sites

immigration, immigrants. See migration

Indiana, Oneota in, 271

Initial Coalescent (IC) sites, 279, 296, 297; Crow Creek village at, 206–7; fortifications, 154, 169, 170; in Middle Missouri, 309, 315; Oneota expansion, 270–71; warfare, 280, 316

Initial Middle Missouri (IMM) sites, 32, 168–69, 279, 280, 293, 295, 296, 297; settlement pattern in, 307, 315; trade network, 283–84, 285–86, 292

injuries, 6, 8, 10, 19, 46; in Late Prehistoric skeletons, 240–41; traumatic, 159, 321

intimidation, fortifications as, 192

Inuit, 6, 26

Iowa, 9, 11, 15, 279, 296; Oneota in, 270, 271, 273; Plains Village groups on, 13, 14; trade networks, 32, 283–84

Ioway Tribe, 273

Iroquois, Iroquois League, 146, 148, 273, 278; fortification systems, 149, 163–67

Iscani subdivision, 206, 212

Itskari/Loup River phase, 259–60

James River (SD), 14, 15, 301

Jamestown mound, 11

Jebel Sahaba cemetery, 239

Jiggs Thompson site, 281

Joliet site (24CB402), 41

Julesburg, attack on, 337, 345

Juniperus virginiana, 174

Kansas, 12, 14, 16, 211, 216, 270; Contact period conflict in, 197–98; Late Prehistoric period, 232–33

KDEs. See kernel density estimates

Kelley, William Fitch, 121

Kelly, Yellowstone, 49–50, 58, 60

Kennewick man, 10

kernel density estimates (KDEs), 305; Middle Missouri, 306–13, 314; univariate and bivariate, 303–4

Ketchen Village, 315

kinship systems, 288, 299, 300

Kiowa, 61, 123, 260

Knife River, 291

Knife River flint, trade networks for, 283–84

knowledge, 336; of fortification construction and maintenance, 147–48

Koch, Peter, 257

!Kung, 239

Kutenai, 132

La Barge Bluffs site (48LN1640), 41, 42, 69, 110, 113

labor, 5, 22; fortifications, 193, 280; palisade construction, 173–74

La Crosse terrace, 273

Lakota, 24, 27, 28, 118–19(n7), 127, 337, 342, 356; history, 123–24; Pawnee attacks on, 134–35; winter counts, 120, 128, 130, 131, 132–33, 135–40

lances: depictions of, 29, 40, 47, 48, 52, 72, 90, 97, 98, 127

Landergin Mesa, 19, 31

landforms, 5; defensible, 6, 155, 200–201; fortified, 151–52, 246–50, 257

Larson site, 18, 120, 269; massacre at, 133, 135, 139

Late Prehistoric I period, 9, 14

Late Prehistoric period, 15, 104, 117, 190, 232; accoutrements, 85–91; battle depictions, 91–96, 100–101, 106; ceramics, 259–60; conflict during, 262–63; counting coup in, 105–6; headdresses and hairstyles, 82–85; offensive weapons, 71–79; projectile points, 250–51; rock art, 67, 69–70, 115; shields, 79–82; skeletal trauma, 240–41; war party sizes, 109–10; in Wyoming region, 240, 258–59

Late Woodland period, 10, 12, 13, 14, 22, 26, 269, 284; interpersonal violence, 11, 157; Middle Missouri and, 296, 297, 316

Lawson village, 166

Leary site, 272

Leavenworth site, 120, 133

ledger-book drawings, 98, 120, 121, 122, 123, 127, 132, 135, 276

Lee, C. W., 50, 56–57, 64

Leonard, Zenas, 6, 62, 64; on Pierre’s Hole battle, 257–58; on war and social status, 57–58

Le Raye, 291

Levels of War model, 340–41, 354; for Cheyenne and other tribes, 342–45, 351; for US frontier army, 345–49

Lewis and Clark, 289

Like-a-Fishhook Village, 291

Lipan Apache, 235

Little Big Horn battlefield, 19

Little River focus, 232

Little Sioux River, 14

Lodge Boy, 61

Loeve-Fox site, 11–12

Lone Man, 184, 189

Longest site (34JF1), 201, 202, 204, 218, 235; fortifications at, 213, 219, 220–21, 223, 224, 228, 230; subterranean structures, 214, 226–27

longhouses, Oneota, 272, 273

Longwoods village, 166

lookouts, women as, 57

Louisiana, fortifications in, 153

Loup River/Itskari phase, 259–60

Lower Mississippi Valley, 153

Lower St. Francis Basin, 161

Lower Walnut focus, 199, 209, 232

maces: rock art depictions of, 115, 125; spike, 72–76, 97, 115

Mackenzie, Charles, 291

magnetometer/gradiometer survey, Bryson-Paddock site, 218, 220, 227–28, 229, 230, 231

maize agriculture, 22

Making of Relations/Relatives rites, 300, 358

males: scalping patterns, 322–30, 333–34; status, 24, 25

malnutrition: at Crow Creek site, 23, 28, 186; at fortified sites, 146–47

Mandan, 28, 85, 90, 118–19(n7), 123, 139, 170, 184, 287, 299; trade networks, 289, 291

mandibles, 10, 12, 26; traumatic injuries on, 321, 334

Manitoba, burial in, 10

Manuel Lisa site (24YL82), decapitations depicted at, 61–62

manuports, at Alcova Redoubt, 256

Massacre Canyon (Nebraska), 17

massacres, 17, 133–34, 135, 270; Crow Creek, 16, 22–23, 145–46, 169, 206, 271, 295–96, 315, 316, 321, 334; in winter counts, 139–40; Wounded Knee, 121, 122

mass graves, 28. See also massacres

MAUP. See Modifiable Areal Unit Problem

maxillas, worked, 10

Maximilian, Prince, 37, 100, 291

Mbuti, 239

McCoy, Ron, winter counts, 123–24

McCutchan-McLaughlin site, 12, 28

McKee Spring site, 69, 92

measles, 202

medicine bundles, 100; rock-art depictions of, 88–89

Medicine Creek Cave (48CK48), 61

Medicine Lodge Creek site, 260

Medieval Maximum, 163, 167

memories, 149

men: and Cheyenne military societies, 343–45; Crow Creek scalping patterns, 322–30

Menoken site, 26

Metis, 133

Michigan, Oneota in, 273

Michigan, Lake, Oneota tradition and, 272, 273

middens, at Mississippian sites, 160–61

Middle Archaic sites, 10

Middle Mississippian period, 269

Middle Missouri-Coalescent, 149

Middle Missouri region, 9, 19, 21, 22, 23, 34, 275, 317, 359; alliances on, 27–28; attacks in, 129, 206–8; chronology and interaction, 297–98; climate changes on, 179–80; collective violence in, 276–77; ditches on, 180–85; ethnic warfare, 295–96; fortified sites, 15, 18, 20, 26–27, 66, 154, 167–72, 277–78, 280–83; intervillage alliances, 314–15; Plains Village settlements, 13–14; population movements in, 187–88, 296; settlement clusters, 293, 298–300, 301, 304–13; skeletal trauma in, 185–87; trade networks, 32, 179, 283–84, 287–88; undefended settlements, 278–79; unoccupied zones in, 315–16

Middle Woodland period, 10–11, 153

migration, 24, 218, 233; Middle Missouri region, 188, 280, 287–88, 295, 296, 297, 315

military power, and fortifications, 152–53

military science, 340

military societies: Cheyenne, 343–45; tactics, 353–54

military tactics/operations, 103, 158, 287; force levels, 194–96; Plains Indian, 342–45, 353–54; US cavalry, 340–42; 348–49, 351–52

militias, chiefly, 154

Mill Creek site, 14, 24–25

Minnesota, 296; Oneota tradition in, 269, 271, 272

Mississippian culture, 25, 149, 269; defensive systems, 157–63; fortified towns, 153, 154, 283; St. Francis type sites, 160–61

Mississippi River valley, buffer zones in, 272

Missouri, Oneota in, 270

Missouria, 273

Missouri River, 10, 14, 289; farmers on, 13, 15–16; settlement distribution, 23–24

Missouri Trench, 242. See also Middle Missouri region

Mitu’tahato’s (Fort Clark), 291

mnemonics, winter counts as, 124

moats, 157

mobility, 234, 240, 253; camp logistics, 342–43

moccasin tails, 99; rock-art depictions of, 89–90

Modifiable Areal Unit Problem (MAUP), 302

Mohawk/Mohican villages, 165

Molstad Village (39DW234), 184–85

Montana, 38, 259; decapitation depictions in, 61–62; rock art sites in, 46–48, 64, 65. See also various regions, sites by name

Mooney, James, 121

Moorehead phase, 270

Morning Star Ceremony, 134–35

mortality rates, Mississippian, 159

motives, for warfare, 131–35

Mound Bottom site, 158

mounds, 10, 153

Moundville, 159, 174

Mud Springs Station, as battlefield site, 337, 338, 339, 349–51, 353

Mummy Cave, 251

muskets, 12, 148

Musselshell River, 38, 39; armored horses depicted on, 47–48; environment, 48–50; rock art on, 51–54, 63–64; tribal interactions on, 54–62; tribes on, 50–51

Musselshell site (24ML1049), 52

mutilations, 8; evidence of, 15, 24–25, 32, 271, 319, 334. See also by type

mythology, 61

Nagle site, 28

Names Hill site, 69, 113

narratives, recorded, 122–23

Nearest neighbor (NN) analysis, 302–3, 304, 305(table), 314

Nebraska, 14, 17, 32; Oneota groups, 15, 270, 272

Nebraska phase, 15, 32, 270

Neeley’s Ferry site, 161, 162

Neodesha Fort (14WN1), 216–17, 232, 234

Newark site, 153

New Mexico, and Wichita villages, 202

New York, Iroquoian sites, 165

New Zealand, pa fortifications in, 194

Nez Perce, 50, 60, 260

NN. See nearest neighbor analysis

nomadic groups, refuges and, 242–43

Nordstrom Bowen site (24 YL419), 47, 69, 92

Norris Farms site, 269

North Cave Hill site, 69, 74, 81, 112, 115, 127, 128, 129, 132, 134

North Dakota, 279, 312. See also Middle Missouri region

Northern Plains, 154, 190. See also Middle Missouri region

Northern Shoshone, 41

North Platte River Valley, 132, 262; Indian-US military fights in, 337–39

North West Company, 289

No Water Petroglyph site (48WA2066), 44, 55, 69, 113

Numic speakers, 259

Nuptadi, 134

Obion site, 158

Obregon, Baltasar de, Historia, 16–17

Oglala (Ogallala) Lakota, 17; Making of Relations/Relatives rites, 300, 358; winter counts, 123, 128, 135–40

Ojibwa, 290

Oklahoma, 10, 11, 12, 15, 18, 25, 208, 233; fortified sites, 211, 212, 213–14, 231; Wichita villages in, 215–16

Omaha, fur trade, 289

Oñate expedition, 197, 198, 199, 232

Oneota tradition, 26, 208, 269; consolidation of, 271–73; expansion of, 31, 270–71; migrations of, 15, 24, 27, 169

operations, military, 342

oral histories/narratives, 120, 122–23, 124, 125, 232; on earthworks, 184, 189; of warfare, 101–3

Orendorf site, 269

Ortiz Parilla, Diego, 206

Osage, 202, 203, 234

ossuaries, 10, 15

osteological evidence, 7–8, 10, 22, 30, 320, 360; analysis of diet, 18, 23; of conflict, 185–87; of trauma, 239, 240–41, 277, 319, 322–30, 331–33, 334

Other, 25; fear of, 179, 187

Otoe, 273

Overland trail, US cavalry protection of, 351–52, 353

Owasco villages, palisaded, 154

Oyarzún, Juan Ángel de, 213

pa, 194

Pacaha, 161

paleoenvironmental data, 22, 23

Paleoindian/Archaic period, 9

Paleoindian period, burials, 10

palisades, 8, 9, 20, 30, 146, 148, 149, 154, 176, 179, 244, 246, 269, 270, 272; construction and maintenance of, 147, 156, 173–74; at Iroquois sites, 163–67; at Middle Missouri sites, 169, 171, 172, 181, 183, 277, 282, 309; at Mississippian sites, 158–59, 160, 162–63; use lives, 157–58, 160; wind speeds and, 150–51; wood used in, 174–75

Palo Duro Canyon, Comanches at, 356

pandemics, 273. See also disease; epidemics

Parker, Quanah, 356

Parkin site, 161, 162

parrying fractures, 241, 319

parties, on Musselshell, 54, 63

Pawnees, 17, 34, 132; Morning Star Ceremony, 134–35

Pax La Roche, 273

Pax Oneota, 273

peace, 197, 291, 355–56; human cultures and, 357–58; identifying, 358–59

Pecos Pueblo, 16, 17

Pend d’Oreille, 46, 115; on Musselshell River, 50, 54, 55

phalanxes, depictions of, 91–92, 100–101, 106–10

pictographic records, 120. See also hide/bison robe paintings; ledger-book drawings

pictographs, 38, 70. See also rock art

Piegan/Peigan, 56, 103, 128; fortifications, 257, 258; on Musselshell River, 50, 54, 55

Pierre’s Hole battle, 257–58

pikes. See maces

Pine Canyon site, 69, 113

Piney Creek site, 260

Pinson site, 153

pipes, steatite, 252, 253

pipestone, 133

Plains Village period, 9, 11, 26, 33, 301, 316; fortified villages, 167–72; rock-art depictions, 12–13

plunder, of Arikara corn caches, 133

point pattern analysis, 302

political relations: antagonistic, 148–49; fortifications and, 152–53

Ponca, trade networks, 289

population movements, 15, 24, 240, 273; Middle Missouri region, 296, 297, 306–16

populations: Middle Missouri villages, 206–7, 208; Southern Plains groups, 197–99, 202

Populus deltoides, in Middle Missouri villages, 171–72, 174

Post-Contact Coalescent (PCC), 296, 297, 312

pottery. See ceramics

Powder River Basin, 132

power, 359; fortifications and, 194–96; shields and, 13, 41, 116

projectile points: at Alcova Redoubt, 250–51, 253; and ditches, 184, 185; embedded, 7, 8, 10, 11–12, 15, 28, 159, 186, 241; Late Prehistoric, 258–59

proto-Arikara, 145, 169, 170

proto-Crow, 260

Protohistoric period, 99, 117; accoutrements, 85–91; Alcova Redoubt at, 250–51, 252, 264; battle depictions, 91–96, 109–10, 113–14; counting coup in, 105–6; headdresses and hairstyles, 82–85; horses in, 110–13; rock art, 67, 69–70, 115; offensive weapons, 71–79; shields, 79–82; violent deaths during, 240–41; Wyoming region, 260–62

proto-Lakota, 170

proto-Mandan/Hidatsa, 170

proto-Mandan villages, 169

proto-northern Iroquoians, 163

Puebloans, 15, 18, 19, 28

radiocarbon dates, 70; Avonlea site, 259; Bryson-Paddock site, 218; Crow Creek site, 22–23

raiding, raids, 4, 11, 17, 19, 120, 133, 157, 168, 285, 343, 345; Iroquoian, 163, 164; stealing women, 55–57. See also horse stealing/raiding

rampart ditches, 282; at Bryson-Paddock site, 219–24

ranked men, rock-art depictions of, 71, 91–92, 100–101, 106–10

reciprocity, failed, 291

Recognition Rock (24RB165), 44, 69, 113

records, 120. See also hide/bison robe paintings; ledger-book drawings; rock art; winter counts

Red Canyon site, 69, 74, 105, 115

Red Cloud, 356

Red River, Wichita sites on, 201, 206, 211, 213–14

Red Wing (Minn.), Oneota tradition, 269, 272

refuge sites, 19; Alcova Redoubt, 237, 246–57; nomadic groups, 242–43

relationship-building practices, 300

relocation, Iroquois villages, 166

repatriation, of Crow Creek skeletons, 322

resources, 5; competition for, 22, 169; for fortification construction and maintenance, 30–31, 147–48, 156, 280; trade networks and, 179, 289–90

“Retreat up the Hill,” depiction of, 58

revenge, 64, 163, 203, 294

Ridge, John, on Tawakoni village, 214–15

Ripley’s K statistic, 303, 304–5, 306, 314

rituals/ceremonies, 47; battle reenactments, 40; depictions of, 41–42

River Bend site, 251

roaches, depictions of, 82, 84, 101

robes, stealing, 56

rock art, 7, 17, 121, 122, 129, 132, 133, 240, 276, 360; battles on, 91–96, 115; bow-spears on, 77–79; captives on, 134, 135; ceremonial tradition, 12, 67–68; coup sticks/staffs on, 59–60; ethnographic interpretation and, 37–38, 104–6; feather bustles on, 85–87; headdresses and hairstyles on, 82, 84–85; horses on, 126–27, 128; ideology/iconography of, 24, 29, 41–46; interpreting, 64–65; medicine bundles on, 88–89; moccasin tails on, 89–90; on Musselshell River, 51–54, 55–58, 63–64; scalps and severed heads on, 60–62; shields on, 79–82; tipis and war lodges on, 58–59; V-neck warriors on, 98–99; warriors on, 12–13, 19, 66, 68–70, 100–101, 106–10; weapons on, 46–48, 71–82, 96–98

Rockshelter Shield site (24ML507), 52

Rosegate (Rose Springs) culture, 258, 259

Rosegate points, 259

Rose Mound, 161, 162

Rose Springs (Rosegate) culture, 258, 259

Rose Springs points, 258

Rush Creek (Nebr.), 337; battlefield, 338, 349–51, 352, 353

Rush Creek (Okla.), 215

sacred precincts, demarcation of, 150

sacred structures, 154

Sahkomaupee (Saukamapee), 12, 66, 106, 258; on bow and arrow, 71, 72; on warfare, 101–2, 110, 115–16

St. Francis River, 161, 162

St. Francis-type sites, 160–61, 162

St. Helena sites, 15

St. Ignace (Taenhatentaron), 146

St. Louis (Huron village), 146

Salish, 132, 246

Salix spp., in Middle Missouri villages, 171–72, 174

Sand Creek massacre, 337

Sand Hills, 337, 353

Sandoval, Felipe de, 201, 202, 205

Sand Prairie phase, 270

San Sabá mission, sacking of, 213, 235

Santee Sioux, 50

Sargeant Ossuary, 15

Saskatchewan, 10, 259

Saukamapee. See Sahkomaupee

scaffolds, Iroquoian villages, 167

scalplocks, as hairstyle, 333

scalp-taking, scalps, 8, 10–11, 14, 15, 18, 24, 46, 116, 120, 126, 187, 319–20; at Crow Creek site, 32, 186, 271, 320–21, 322–30, 331–32; display of, 25, 127; rock-art depictions of, 52, 60, 84–85, 101; of warriors, 333–34; in winter counts, 131–32

scar-face motif, at West Rygate site, 52

scurvy, at Fort Frontenac, 146–47

seasonal camps, fortified, 208–9

security, 353; of Cheyenne camps, 342–43

sedentary groups, and fortifications, 245

self-bows, 5, 158–59

self-portraits, in rock art, 63

self-representation, in rock art, 29

Semai, 238–39

settlement/site clusters, 293; analysis of, 302–4; Middle Missouri, 298–300, 301, 304–13

settlement patterns, 293; Middle Missouri, 23–24, 276, 293, 301, 306–16

settlements, 24; defensive, 6, 15; Plains Village, 13–14; undefended, 278–79

Seventh Iowa Volunteer Cavalry, 338

severed heads, rock-art depictions of, 46, 60–62

sex, and scalping patterns, 322–30

Shea site, 170, 208

shield-bearing warriors: depictions of, 12, 13, 66, 67, 68–69, 80, 81, 87, 88, 93, 94, 95, 100–101, 109, 118(n2), 125; headdresses and hairstyles on, 82, 84–85; weapons carried by, 71–76, 96–98, 118(n4)

shields, 5, 46, 85, 99, 102, 119(nn11, 14), 148; depictions of, 12, 13, 37, 42, 44, 45, 47, 49, 51, 64, 67, 69, 77, 79–82, 87; supernatural power and, 100, 116

Shoshone, 63, 258, 259, 260, 261–62

shrines, protection of, 154

Sicanju Lakota, winter counts, 128, 135–40

sieges, of fortified sites, 146–47, 257–58

Siouan speakers, 27, 145, 149, 169, 170, 273

Sioux, 57, 60; on Musselshell River, 50, 64; trade, 290–91

skeletons: Crow Creek village, 271, 321, 334–35; traumatic injuries on, 6, 7–8, 159, 167, 185–87, 239, 240–41, 269, 277, 319

Skiri Pawnee, 129; Morning Star Ceremony, 134–35

skirmishes, 120, 129

skulls, 26; scalping patterns on, 323–28, 331–32; traumatic injuries on, 8, 11, 321, 334; trophy, 14, 15, 24–25

slaves, slave trade, 18, 99, 135, 234

smallpox epidemics, 202, 299; and captives, 116, 134–35

Smith, John, 159, 214

Snake Indians, 103

social complexity, 191

socialization, 26

social meaning, 149

social stratification, in Arikara societies, 330

social structure: Arikara society, 331, 332–33; and fortifications, 149–50

society, 54; integration of warfare in, 32, 34

sodalities, 300

Sommers site, 180

Sonota complex, 10

Soto, Hernando de, 159, 161

South Carolina, 146

South Dakota, 9, 24, 271, 279, 280, 301, 312, 314; Arikara in, 18, 27; Initial Middle Missouri sites in, 32, 296; Plains Village sites on, 14, 15–16. See also Middle Missouri region; various sites by name

Southern Plains, 209; fortified villages on, 211–16, 231–32; group interactions, 200–206; trade networks, 234–35

South Piney site, 69, 112

Southwest, Plains trade with, 232, 233–34

Spanish, 103; attacks on Taovaya Wichita, 211, 213; on southern Plains, 197, 198, 199, 200, 212; in Southwest, 16–17

spears, 40; rock-art depictions of, 12, 46, 48, 52, 72, 90, 125

Spencer rifles, 339

spirituality, 116, 131

spiritual symbols, shields as, 46

Spiro Mounds, falcon-warrior imagery, 25

Spokane, on Musselshell River, 50, 55

Spring, Otto, 218

Spring Boy, 61

staffs, rock art depictions of, 59–60, 79

Standing Bear motifs, 80

Star Village, 290

status, 54; in Arikara society, 332–33; male, 24, 25, 169; warfare and, 57–58, 64

Steed-Kisker site, 32

Stirling phase, 270

stone structures, in Protohistoric sites, 240

Stony Point village, 315, 317

strategic plans, military, 341

streamers, rock-art depictions of, 89

strongholds, 242, 243

subsistence, hunter-gatherer, 21–22

subterranean/semi-subterranean structures: at Bryson-Paddock site, 224–27, 228–30; in Wichita villages, 214–15, 216, 232

suicidal fighting, 343

Sun Dance, 41

sun-ray hairstyles, 85

supernatural, 37, 100

supply routes, across Plains, 346

Sweetgrass Hills, 133

swords, depictions of, 40

symbolism, Oneota, 273

synecdoche, in Plains Biographic rock art, 106, 110

tabs/tassels, depictions of, 91, 92, 93

tactics, military, 342

Taenhatentaron (St. Ignace), 146

Talking Crow site (39BF3), 207, 208

tally scenes, tallies, 55, 79, 99, 119(n13)

Tancoa, 199

Taovaya (Tahuaisses) subdivision, 201, 204, 205, 206, 212, 213, 216

Tascaluça, 159

tattoos, 88

Tawakoni (Tahuacano) subdivision, 212, 213; attacks on, 214–15

tear-streak motif, 88

telegraph system/stations, 346, 347

Terminal Middle Missouri (TMM), 296, 298

territory, 103; defending, 132–33

Teton Sioux, 50, 289–90, 292

Texas, 16, 18, 26; fortified sites, 211, 214–15, 231; Late Prehistoric period, 232, 233; Late Woodland-Plains Village sites, 11–12, 15

Thin Elk-Steamboat Winter Count, 124

Thoburn, Joseph, 218

Thompson, David, 102

3:1 Rule, 195, 196, 206–7

Thuja occidentalis, 174

timber. See wood

tipis, rock art depictions of, 58–59

Tobias site (14RC8), 232

Toltec sites, 153

Tony Glas site, 14

tooth evulsion, Crow Creek village, 271

Toqua site, 174

Torus beads, 252

towers, Mississippian sites, 158

trade, trade networks, 5, 38, 54, 55, 116, 212, 272; conflict and, 289–92; Middle Missouri, 32, 179, 283–84, 285–86, 287–88; Plains-Southwest, 233–34; Southern Plains, 232, 234–35

trading events/fairs, 289, 291

trappers, traders, 38, 54

trenches, 191–92; at Wichita villages, 201, 204, 215. See also ditches

Treviño, Antonio, 202, 214; on Longest site fortifications, 220–21, 226, 228, 230

tribes, 65, 299

triggers, for attacks, 28–29

trophy-taking, trophies, 8, 12, 24, 106, 159, 269, 319, 332, 343; body parts as, 10, 11, 14, 15, 25, 276; as dehumanizing, 330–31; head as, 60–62; Middle Missouri, 169, 186, 187. See also scalp-taking, scalps

Truman Mounds, 10

Truteau, Jean Baptiste, 172, 289, 291

Tuscarora, 146

Twenty-one Guns site (24ML398), 53–54

Tyronza River, 161, 162

Uncompahgre Brown Ware, 253, 262

unoccupied zones, on Middle Missouri, 306, 307, 309, 312, 315–16

Upper Republican phase, 259

Upper Yazoo Basin, 161

US Army/Cavalry: attacks by, 120, 133, 215; expeditions of, 337, 338–39; Indian battles with, 32–33; military tactics, 353–54; at Mud Springs battle, 349–51; operations, 340–42, 345–49

US Army Corps of Engineers, Omaha District data, 181–82

US Dragoons, 215

Utes, 130

Utz site complex, 272

Verdigris Coulee site, 69, 104, 105, 112, 113, 115

Verdigris River, Wichita sites on, 216

Verendrye, 66

Vernon Paul site, 161

Victory Dance, 127

Villasur fight, 129

violence, 4, 17, 151, 169, 357, 361; causes of, 20–21; collective, 276–77, 288–89, 292–93, 358; hunter-gatherer, 238–40; increased, 318–19; trade networks and, 32, 289–91; visibility of, 6–7; Woodland period, 10–11

Virginia, warriors in, 159

visibility, of social violence, 6–7

V-neck warriors: depictions of, 66, 67, 68–69, 94, 96, 98–99, 117, 119(n10); hairstyles and headdresses on, 82, 84–85

Waco (Hueco) subdivision, 212, 213

wall-and-trench system, 191–92

Walnut River (Kansas), Etzanoa on, 197–98, 199

walls, wall systems, 192, 242, 243–44; at Alcova Redoubt, 246–50; curtain, 155–56; defensive, 148, 150

war booty, 99, 114

warfare, 3, 17, 103, 268, 275; defining, 4, 40; ethnic, 295–96, 315–16; Sahkomaupee’s descriptions of, 101–2

war honor events, 343

war lodges/houses, rock art depictions of, 58–59

war parties: range of, 130–31; sizes of, 106–10; in winter counts, 128, 136–37

Warring States period, 194

Warrior-art tradition, 122–23, 125–26, 133

warriors, 25, 159, 202; mounted, 45, 46, 103; ranks of, 91–92, 100–101, 106, 109–10, 115–16; in rock-art, 12–13, 19, 49, 51, 64, 66, 68–69, 125–26; scalping of, 333–34; scalp-taking, by 331–32. See also shield-bearing warriors; V-neck warriors

warrior societies, 13. See also military societies

Washita River people, 26

Watson Brake site, 153

weapons, 17, 33, 40, 148, 277, 339, 345; at Alcova Redoubt, 255–57; decorations on, 90–91; defensive, 79–82; depictions of, 12, 29, 37, 42, 44–45, 46–48, 63–64, 66, 69, 71–79, 94, 95, 105, 118(n5), 125; efficacy of, 96–98; on southern Plains, 203–4

West Rygate site (24GV191), 52–53

Wheeler phase, 231

whiskey, trading for, 55

Whistling Elk site (39HU242), 207, 315

White Mountain Petroglyphs (48SW302), 45

Wichita, 16, 198, 209, 210, 211, 232, 233; fortified villages, 212–16; interactions with other tribes, 200–206; trade networks, 234–35

Wichita subdivision, 201, 205, 212, 216

Williams Coulee site, 69, 109

willow (Salix spp.), in Middle Missouri villages, 171–72, 174

Wilson, Gilbert L., 290

Wilson Creek site, 128

wind, and wooden palisades, 150–51

Winnebago, 273

Winnebago, Lake, Oneota at, 272

winter counts, 120, 123–25, 126, 133; combat/conflicts recounted in, 128–32, 135–40

wintering areas, Musselshell River as, 50–51

Wisconsin, Oneota in, 269, 272, 273

Wittrock site, 9, 281, 359

Wolf Chief, 290–91

wolf-hat headdresses, 84, 100

wolf pelts, depictions of, 88

women, 60, 126, 127, 145; in Arikara society, 332–33; captives, 41, 42, 43, 55–57, 86, 99, 103, 105, 116, 135; in massacres, 133–34, 322–30; rock art depictions, 37, 85; scalping patterns, 331–32

wood, 193; decay rates of, 174–75; in Iroquois palisades, 166–67; in Middle Missouri villages, 171–72, 277; in palisades, 156, 157–58

Woodland/Late Prehistoric period, 9

Woodland period, 9, 10–11, 33, 153, 168

woodworking tools, at Mississippian sites, 158

Wounded Knee, 121, 122

wounds, wounding: arrow, 7, 8, 10, 11–12, 13, 15, 28, 29, 159, 186, 241, 271; combat, 6, 94, 95, 96, 241, 319. See also scalp-taking, scalps

Writing-on-Stone site, 69, 79, 104; battle scenes at, 52, 58, 109, 110, 112, 113; warriors depicted at, 67, 84; weapons’ decorations depicted at, 90, 92; weapons depicted at, 115, 119(n14)

Wyoming, 11, 38, 237, 240; clubs used in, 76, 79; Late Prehistoric period, 258–60; Protohistoric period, 260–62; rock art sites in, 41–42, 46–48, 55, 60–62, 64, 65. See also various regions; sites by name

Yamassees, 146

Yanktonai Dakota (Yankton Sioux), 50, 291; winter counts, 123, 128, 133, 135–40

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