Notes

CHAPTER 1: SEA OTTERS AND SCIENTISTS

1. R. Fisher, Bering’s Voyages, 126–129; R. Fisher “Finding America,” 4–12; Goldenberg, Gvozdev, 26, 64–66. Gvozdev had command in place of the navigator Gens (ill and left in port) and assistant navigator Fedorov (onboard but lacking the authority or strength to command) (Goldenberg, 54–57).

2. Fedorova, Russian Population, 40–51, 98–99.

3. R. Fisher, Bering’s Voyages, 148–150.

4. L. Black, Russians in Alaska, 43–48; McCracken, Hunters of the Stormy Sea, 22–26.

5. Orth, Dictionary of Alaska Place Names, 917.

6. L. Black, Russians in Alaska, 67–68; Stejneger, Georg Wilhelm Steller, 350–354.

7. Stejneger, “How the Sea-Cow Became Exterminated,” 1049.

8. Ibid. It is believed that in modern times the sea cow lived only in the Kommandorski (Commander) Islands, of which Bering Island is the largest, and that the spectacled cormorant nested only on Bering Island. The Kommandorski Islands remained part of Russia following the land transfer in 1867.

9. D. Spencer, “Aleutian Islands National Wildlife Refuge,” 16.

10. Scheffer, Adventures of a Zoologist, 68.

11. Bancroft, History of Alaska, 38–41, 69, 78–79; Golder, Bering’s Voyages, 1–5; Stejneger, Georg Wilhelm Steller, 4, 14, 29–32, 46–52, 368–370, 408–422, 481–486.

12. Golder, Bering’s Voyages, 233.

13. Steller, Journal of a Voyage, 143–144, 146. When first encountered, the otters spent much of their time on land, ranging more than half a mile from shore.

14. Berkh, Chronological History, 1, 11–12; Makarova, Russians on the Pacific, 2, 97–98, 114.

15. Berkh, Chronological History, 11–13; L. Black, Atkha, 77–79; Makarova, Russians on the Pacific, 98–99, 101–102, 107, 115.

16. Liapunova, “Relations With the Natives,” 114–116; Berkh, Chronological History, 13, 17; L. Black, Atkha, 80–81.

17. McCracken, Hunters of the Stormy Sea, 38–39, 56–57, 190.

18. Ibid.

19. Dayvidov, Two Voyages, 194, 218.

20. Liapunova, “Relations With the Natives,” 108–109; Berkh, Chronological History, 4–6, 25.

21. Liapunova, “Relations With the Natives,” 105–106, 108, 111; Berkh, Chronological History, 31–43; Gibson, “Russian Dependence,” 80.

22. Liapunova, “Relations With the Natives,” 127; L. Black, Russians in Alaska, 110–111, 225–230.

23. R. Fisher, “Finding America,” 18–19.

24. L. Black, Russians in Alaska, 106–111, 126–127, 209.

25. Liapunova, “Relations With the Natives,” 124; L. Black, Atkha, 89, 92–93; Gibson, “Russian Dependence,” 80–81; Gideon, Around the World Voyage, 62–70.

26. L. Black, Russians in Alaska, 128–130. Lantis, Ethnohistory in Southwestern Alaska, 179, sets the figure at 80 percent.

27. Dayvidov, Two Voyages, 191–197.

28. Makarova, Russians on the Pacific, 162–164.

29. Gibson, “Russian Dependence,” 81–84, 88; Fedorova, Russian Population, 131–134; Du Four, “Russian Withdrawal,” 60–64.

30. Ogden, “Russian Sea-Otter and Seal Hunting,” 217–237.

31. Ibid., 229–230, 234–239.

32. Fedorova, Russian Population, 135, 143–144, 198; Okun, Russian-American Company, 122–152.

33. Berkh, Chronological History, 89–91; Bertrand, “Geographical Exploration,” 256–258.

34. Applegate, Report on Population, 1890, 201.

35. Gibson, Otter Skins, 56–58, 178, 181, 277.

36. Gibson, Imperial Russia, 155–157, 167–168.

37. Fedorova, Russian Population, 187, 190; Gibson, “Russian Dependence,” 81–82; Gruening, State of Alaska, 20.

38. Gibson, “Russian Dependence,” 81–82; Fedorova, Russian Population, 139, 187, 190.

39. Gibson, “Russian Dependence,” 98–102; Liapunova, “Relations With the Natives,” 134.

40. Gideon, Around the World Voyage, 79.

41. Liapunova, “Relations With the Natives,” 136–142.

42. Fedorova, Russian Population, 155.

43. Gibson, Otter Skins, 234–236, 272, 275–277.

44. Lensink, “History and Status of Sea Otters,” 12–15; Golovin, End of Russian America, 78–79.

45. Berkh, Chronological History, 93; Lensink, “History and Status of Sea Otters,” 15.

46. Elliott, “Ten Years’ Acquaintance,” 809.

47. Elliott, “The Sea-Otter Fishery,” 489–491.

48. Hussey, Embattled Katmai, 194–202; Healy, Report of the Corwin, 1884, 19.

49. Applegate, Report on Population, 1890, 203–204.

50. Lensink, “History and Status of Sea Otters,” 14–18.

51. Hooper, Report on the Sea-Otter Banks, 3–5.

52. Hinckley, “Alaska and the Emergence,” 85–87.

53. Gibson, “Russian Dependence,” 88–89; Bockstoce, Whales, Ice, and Men, 191.

54. Hamlin, “Condition of Seal Life,” 453.

55. Applegate, Report on Population, 1890, 214.

56. Tansill, Canadian-American Relations, 282, 359.

57. Lensink, “History and Status of Sea Otters,” 17–18; Kenyon, The Sea Otter, 136; 36 Stat. 326, April 21, 1910; Convention for the Preservation and Protection of Fur Seals in the North Pacific, TS 563, July 7, 1911; President William Howard Taft, Executive Order 1733, March 3, 1913.

58. McCracken, Hunters of the Stormy Sea, 292–294.

59. Eyerdam, “Sea Otters in the Aleutian Islands,” 71.

60. D. Spencer, “Aleutian National Wildlife Refuge,” 12, 45–51.

61. Alaska Game Commission, 5th Annual Report, 1929, 4.

62. Merritt, “History, 1741–1967,” 124–128.

63. Kohlhoff, When the Wind Was a River, 85, 136, 165–168.

64. Merritt, “History, 1741–1967,” 128–130.

65. D. Spencer, “Aleutian National Wildlife Refuge,” 59–60.

66. Emanuel, “Robert ‘Sea Otter’ Jones,” 41–44.

67. Calkins and Schneider, “Sea Otter,” 3.

68. Kenyon and Spencer, Otter Population and Transplant Studies, 13–18; Laycock, “Moving Day for Sea Otters,” 62, 70–72; Burris and McKnight, Game Transplantation, 35–37.

69. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Alaskan Wildlife Refuges.

70. S. Evans, Historical View, 89.

71. Calkins and Schneider, “Sea Otter,” 4–5.

72. Alaska Economic Report, “Sea Otter Harvest,” 7.

73. Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustees, Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Restoration, Vol. 1, 20.

74. Calkins and Schneider, “Sea Otter,” 4.

75. Kaiser, “Sea Otter Declines,” 390–391; T. Williams et al., “Killer Appetites,” 3380–3381.

76. Palmisano, “Sea Otter Predation,” abstract, 110–139.

CHAPTER 2: FUR SEAL’S FRIEND: HENRY W. ELLIOTT

1. F. Martin, Sea Bears, 31–32, 45–50. In all probability, at least two other vessels visited the Pribilofs earlier and took cargoes of skins. See L. Black, Russians in Alaska, 75n22.

2. A. Roppel, Management of Northern Fur Seals, 1. Toward the end of the 20th Century, breeding colonies also existed at Bogoslav Island west of Unalaska and on Sea Lion Rock west of Dall Island in the Southeast.

3. Litke, Voyage Around the World, 110–113.

4. Veniaminov, Notes on the Islands, 342.

5. Busch, War Against the Seals, 4, 6, 10–11, 17–18, 36.

6. Gibson, Otter Skins, 252–253, 262–264.

7. Stevenson, “Skins of Fur-Seals,” 24502–24503.

8. Okun, Russian-American Company, 60–62. For a slightly different version of the story of wastage of skins, see Gibson, Imperial Russia, 37.

9. Busch, War Against the Seals, 99–100; Applegate, Report on Population, 1890, 204–205, 208; Veniaminov, Notes on the Islands, 344–345; Scheffer, Fiscus, and Todd, History of Scientific Study, 3–4.

10. L. Black, Russians in Alaska, 262, 267, 275, 280–281.

11. Okun, Russian-American Company, 226, 244–261. David Miller, Alaska Treaty, also relates causes and events leading to the sale of Alaska.

12. F. Martin, Sea Bears, 78, 80, 89; Scheffer, Fiscus, and Todd, History of Scientific Study, 5. Martin, p. 78, sets the 1869 kill at 365,000 or more.

13. Scheffer, Fiscus, and Todd, History of Scientific Study, 5–7.

14. Murray, Vagabond Fleet, 41.

15. Busch, War Against the Seals, 110–112, 115.

16. D. Jones, Century of Servitude, 5, 7, 10, 15, 20, 22–24, 28–29.

17. Ibid., 27–29.

18. Murray, Vagabond Fleet, 41, 45–46.

19. F. Martin, Sea Bears, 93–94; Wright, Lewis and Dryden’s Marine History, 425–426.

20. Murray, Vagabond Fleet, 19, 24, 28, 156.

21. Ibid., 21–22.

22. Busch, War Against the Seals, 136.

23. Healy, Cruise of the Corwin, 1884, 33–34.

24. Elliott, “Report on the Condition of the Fur-Seal Rookeries,” 510–511.

25. Jordan and Clark, Seal and Salmon Fisheries, Vol. 1, 229.

26. Elliott, Seal-Islands of Alaska, 157, 170; Elliott, Our Arctic Province, 232–253.

27. Busch, War Against the Seals, 119–121; Gay, “Henry W. Elliott,” 214.

28. A. Roppel, Management of Northern Fur Seals, 16–17.

29. Morris, “Keeper of the Seal,” 2–4.

30. Fitzhugh and Seilig, “Smithsonian’s Alaska Connection,” 194–198; ibid., 11–12.

31. James, First Scientific Exploration, 1–18.

32. Sherwood, Exploration of Alaska, 36–54.

33. Morris, “Keeper of the Seal,” 12–13, 17.

34. Ibid., 34–37, 65–67; Shalkop, “Henry W. Elliott: Fighter,” 8–12.

35. Gruening, State of Alaska, 68–70. In the November 1877 Harper’s, p. 802, Elliott asserted that Alaska “bids fair . . . never to be a treasure trove for the miner or the agriculturalist.”

36. Gruening, State of Alaska, 90–92, 516n33; Busch, War Against the Seals, 123–124.

37. Murray, Vagabond Fleet, 57.

38. Tansill, Canadian-American Relations, 270, 277, 293, 299, 314–315.

39. C. Campbell, “Anglo-American Crisis,” 394–395, 403–414; ibid., 322–324.

40. Tansill, Canadian-American Relations, 322–329.

41. Ibid., 336–337, 340, 345–347; F. Martin, Sea Bears, 121–127.

42. Stevenson, “Skins of Fur-Seals,” 24502–24503. U.S. government reports gathered from vessel owners listed far lower kill totals, e.g., an 1894 high of 61,838 (Scheffer, Fiscus, and Todd, History of Scientific Study, 8).

43. T. Bailey, “North Pacific Sealing Convention,” 2–3, 2n6, 2n8.

44. Townsend, “Condition of Seal Life,” 471.

45. Ibid., 470–471. Spears, better described as harpoons, could be 20 feet long (Robert DeArmond, letter to author, April 12, 2002).

46. DeArmond, “Sailing for Furs,” 15–16, 23–24.

47. Austin, Japanese Fur Sealing, 16–18.

48. Ibid., 18.

49. DeArmond, “Sailing for Furs,” 25.

50. Austin, Japanese Fur Sealing, 18–20.

51. Murray, Vagabond Fleet, 32, 201–204, 207.

52. T. Bailey, “North Pacific Sealing Convention,” 3–5.

53. K. Dorsey, Dawn of Conservation Diplomacy, 120, 125–126.

54. Jordan and Clark, “Appendix,” 701–702, 705, 711–714.

55. K. Dorsey, Dawn of Conservation Diplomacy, 126–129.

56. Tansill, Canadian-American Relations, 347–348, 353, 364–365, 369.

57. Busch, War Against the Seals, 154–157; Jordan, Matka and Kotik.

58. Morris, “Keeper of the Seal,” 1, 52, 77, 88, 102, 106–107, 126.

59. Dorsey, Dawn of Conservation Diplomacy, 135–141.

60. Booth, “Henry W. Elliott,” 22, 25; Geiger, “Saga of the Alaskan Fur Seals,” 11–12; F. Martin, Sea Bears, 145; Hornaday, Thirty Years War, 174–181; 36 Stat. 326, April 21, 1910.

61. Dorsey, Dawn of Conservation Diplomacy, 148–152.

62. TS 563, July 7, 1911; T. Bailey, “North Pacific Sealing Convention,” 4n11, 5–14.

63. Dorsey, Dawn of Conservation Diplomacy, 159–162.

64. New York Times, “No More Slaughtering of Seals For Five Years.” September 1, 1912, Part 5, 10.

65. Morris, “Keeper of the Seal,” 134.

66. D. Jones, Century of Servitude, 21, 39–40, 44–47.

67. Scheffer, Fiscus, and Todd, History of Scientific Study, 19–20, 26–27.

68. Riley, Fur Seal Industry, 9.

69. Bean and Rowland, Evolution of International Wildlife Law, 472n14.

70. Robert DeArmond, letter to author, April 12, 2000.

71. Austin, Japanese Fur Sealing, 21–22.

72. Bean and Rowland, Evolution of International Wildlife Law, 473.

73. Thorne, “Nature Ramblings,” 124.

74. East, “Uncle Sam’s Prize Fur Factory,” 189, 193.

75. Kohlhoff, When the Wind Was a River, 8–10, 89–96, 114–115, 147.

76. D. Jones, Century of Servitude, 176–177; Busch, War Against the Seals, 239–240.

77. Kenyon, Scheffer, and Chapman, Population Study of Alaskan Fur-Seal Herd, 41, 44–48.

78. Scheffer, Fiscus, and Todd, History of Scientific Study, 27, 42–43; Convention on North Pacific Fur Seals, 314 UNTS 105.

79. A. Roppel, Management of Northern Fur Seals, 1, 6–9, 19–20; Busch, War Against the Seals, 226–227.

80. Murray, Vagabond Fleet, 237.

81. Steve Zimmerman, pers. com., July 3, 2002.

82. Angliss, De Master, and Lopez, Alaska Marine Mammal Stock Assessments, 2001, 19–22.

83. Sarah Kershaw, “Decline of Hardy Alaskan Fur Seals Baffles Experts,” New York Times, February 22, 2005: F4.

84. Morris, “Keeper of the Seal,” 1, 136, 139, 145; Shalkop, “Henry Wood Elliott,” 9–15; Busch, War Against the Seals, chaps. 4, 5.

85. F. Martin, Sea Bears, 148, 158.

86. Cart, “Struggle for Wildlife Protection,” 31–32.

87. Scheffer, Adventures of a Zoologist, 92–93.

CHAPTER 3: WAKE OF THE WHALERS

1. Kushner, Conflict on the Northwest Coast, 82; Ray, Eskimos of Bering Strait, 198. According to Bodfish, Chasing the Bowhead, 89, the Superior and Ocmulgee entered the Arctic Ocean in the fog about the same time, and no one knew which got there first.

2. S. Evans, Historical View, 129; H. Collins, Clark, and Walker, Aleutian Islands, 29.

3. Petroff, “Report on the Population,” 392–393.

4. Durham, “Historical Perspective,” 5.

5. Bockstoce, “Eskimo Whaling,” 4.

6. Petroff, “Report on the Population,” 368.

7. Ibid.; Dayvidov, Two Voyages, 225.

8. Bancroft, History of Alaska, 193.

9. S. Evans, Historical View, 131–132; Petroff, “Report on the Population,” 351–352.

10. R. Webb, On the Northwest, 40–47, 54, 68.

11. Ibid., 69–72.

12. Scammon, “Northern Whaling,” 548–549.

13. Scidmore, “Alaska Fish and Game,” 841.

14. Best, “Estimates of Landed Catch,” 416.

15. Bockstoce, Whales, Ice and Men, 73–74.

16. Clark, “Whale Fishery,” 74; ibid., 95.

17. Francis, History of World Whaling, 149–151.

18. Best, “Estimates of Landed Catch,” 406–407, 410–411.

19. Carroll, “Utilization of the Bowhead Whale,” 1–4.

20. Bockstoce, Whales, Ice and Men, 94–95.

21. VanStone, “Commercial Whaling,” 3–5.

22. S. Evans, Historical View, 140–46; ibid., 2–6.

23. Bockstoce, “History of Commercial Whaling,” 22.

24. Best, “Estimates of Landed Catch,” 416.

25. Bockstoce, “History of Commercial Whaling,” 22–24.

26. Bodfish, Chasing the Bowhead, 112.

27. Bockstoce, Whales, Ice and Men, 260, 327; Vanstone, “Commercial Whaling,” 1, 10.

28. Schmitt, DeJong, and Winter, Thomas Welcome Roys, 43–44, 47.

29. Clark, “Whale Fishery,” 77–78.

30. Gilbert, “Confederate Raider Shenandoah,” 188–207.

31. Hawes, Whaling, 261–269.

32. Clark, “Whale Fishery,” 84–85; Bockstoce, Whales, Ice and Men, 151–159.

33. Hegarty, Returns of Whaling Vessels, 23–43.

34. Hawes, Whaling, 270–273.

35. Tilton, Cap’n George Fred, 164–224; Hussey, Embattled Katmai, 290–293; J. Cook, Pursuing the Whale, 124–125.

36. Joe King, “When Disaster Overtook the Whaling Fleet,” 190–193, 196.

37. Bockstoce, “History of Commercial Whaling,” 22, 24; VanStone, “Commercial Whaling,” 9–10.

38. Marquette and Bockstoce, “Historical Shore-Based Catch of Bowhead Whales,” 14, 16.

39. Morgan, “Modern Shore-Based Whaling,” 37–41.

40. Reeves et al., “Whaling Results at Akutan,” 446–447.

41. Evermann, Alaska Fisheries and Fur Industries in 1913, 130–131.

42. Governor of Alaska, Report of Governor to Secretary of Interior, 1920, 56.

43. Morgan, “Modern Shore-Based Whaling,” 43; Governor of Alaska, Report of Governor to Secretary of Interior, 1914, 25–26.

44. R. Webb, On the Northwest, 236, 240–241, 244, 250–255.

45. Tonnessen and Johnsen, History of Modern Whaling, 115, 124–127, 169, 649.

46. R. Webb, On the Northwest, 241–242; Durham, “Historical Perspective,” 6.

47. R. Webb, On the Northwest, 247.

48. Tonnessen and Johnsen, History of Modern Whaling, 453, 457, 461–462, 469–470, 500, 530–532.

49. Ibid., 123, 125, 658, 665–671.

50. Scarff, “Historic Distribution of the Right Whale,” 51; Shelden et al., “Historical and Current Habitat Use by North Pacific Right Whales,” 130, 133.

51. McClung, Hunted Mammals of the Sea, 37–40.

52. Angliss, De Master, and Lopez, Alaska Marine Mammal Stock Assessments, 2001, 131–136.

53. Ibid., 139–154.

54. Ibid., 160–167, 170–172.

55. Berkh, Chronological History, 99.

56. Bancroft, History of Alaska, 193.

57. Gibson, Imperial Russia, 36.

58. Perry, World of the Walrus, 124.

59. Litke, Voyage Around the World, 77–78.

60. Perry, World of the Walrus, 123–124.

61. Clark, “Pacific Walrus Fishery,” 314–318.

62. Snell, “The Walrus and His Hunters,” 16–17.

63. Stevenson, “Oils From Seals,” 23615–23616.

64. Chance, Eskimo of North Alaska, 13–16; Huntington, Wildlife Management, 36–38.

65. Bockstoce, Whales, Ice and Men, 137–141, 201; Boeri, People of the Ice Whale, 56–59.

66. Brower, Fifty Years Below Zero, 77–79.

67. Bockstoce, Whales, Ice, and Men, 137–141, 201; Boeri, People of the Ice Whale, 56–59.

68. Mudar and Speaker, “Natural Catastrophes in Arctic Populations,” 75–80, 99–102.

69. Hinckley, Americanization of Alaska, 82–83.

70. Healy, Report of the Corwin, 1884, 17–18.

71. D. Mitchell, Sold American, 137–138.

72. Hinckley, “Alaska and the Emergence,” 92–93.

73. Burch, Traditional Eskimo Hunters, 26.

74. S. Jackson, Report on Introduction of Reindeer, 1893, 5–7, 11–12. Anthropologist Dorothy Jean Ray (The Eskimos of Bering Strait, 200) argues that for the Bering Strait villages most reliant on walruses, including King Island, an adequate population of the animals remained despite the commercial slaughter.

75. McClung, Hunted Mammals of the Sea, 131–132.

76. Bockstoce, Whales, Ice and Men, 141; 35 Stat. 102, May 11, 1908.

77. Madsen, Arctic Trader, 188, 197–202.

78. Ibid., 188, 197–201.

79. Tonnessen and Johnsen, History of Modern Whaling, 122.

80. Madsen, Arctic Trader, 205–212.

81. Scull, Hunting in the Arctic, 10, 36, 110, 126, 133, 137–138, 141, 143, 160, 292.

82. Bernard, “Walrus Protection in Alaska,” 100–101; Fay, Pacific Walrus Investigations, 4.

83. Chance, Eskimo of North Alaska, 15–17.

84. J. Brooks, “Contribution to History of the Walrus,” 79, 86–92.

85. Fay, Ecology of the Pacific Walrus, 241–242; Baker, “Walrus,” 30.

86. Burns, Walrus in Alaska, 1, 36; Sease and Chapman, “Pacific Walrus,” 22–23.

87. Courtright, Game Harvests in Alaska, 34; Strickland, “Eskimo vs. the Walrus,” 51–52, 57.

88. Angliss, De Master, and Lopez, Alaska Marine Mammal Stock Assessments, 2001, 193–196.

89. J. Allen, History of North American Pinnipeds, 261–274; Elliott, Seal-Islands of Alaska, 146–150.

90. A. Roppel, Management of Northern Fur Seals, 5.

91. Busch, War Against the Seals, 200–204.

92. D. Spencer, “Aleutian Islands National Wildlife Refuge,” 27.

93. Dall, “On the Preservation of the Marine Mammals,” 687.

94. Kenyon, “History of the Steller Sea Lion,” 70–72.

95. Scheffer, Adventures of A Zoologist, 58–59.

96. Kenyon, “History of the Steller Sea Lion,” 68, 73–75.

97. Dassow, “Utilization of Sea Lions,” 6–9.

98. Calkins, “Steller Sea Lion,” 4–5; 86 Stat. 1027, October 21, 1972.

99. Lowry, “Alaska’s Seals and Sea Lions,” 15–16.

100. Angliss, De Master, and Lopez, Alaska Marine Mammal Stock Assessments, 2001, 1, 2, 7, 11.

101. Hoover, “Harbor Seal,” 138.

102. Dayvidov, Two Voyages, 221–222.

103. Catton, Land Reborn, 22–23, 110–111, 191–203.

104. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game, Annual Report for 1958, 92, 95, 103.

105. Lowry, “Alaska’s Seals and Sea Lions,” 16–17.

106. Angliss, De Master, and Lopez, Alaska Marine Mammal Stock Assessments, 2001, 26–29, 34, 37, 41–44.

107. T. Williams et al., “Killer Appetites,” 3380–3381.

CHAPTER 4: JOHN MUIR AND THE LAND

1. Wolfe, John of the Mountains, 317.

2. Fox, John Muir and His Legacy, 28–36, 48–50, 86–88; Muir, Story of My Boyhood, 2–3, 43–44, 62–75, 231–234; Cohen, History of Sierra Club, 1–6; Dictionary of American Biography, Vol. VII, 1934, 314–316; National Cyclopedia of American Biography, Vol. IX, 1907, 449–450; Sterling, Biography of American and Canadian Naturalists and Environmentalists, 563–566.

3. Oelschlaeger, Idea of Wilderness, 175–182, 178 (quotation), 186–193.

4. Kimes, John Muir: A Reading Bibliography, 165. The trips took place in 1879, 1880, 1881, 1890, 1896, 1897, and 1899.

5. Merrell, “A Wild, Discouraging Mess,” 32.

6. Buske, “John Muir: Go To Alaska,” 32; Muir, Travels in Alaska, 51–55.

7. Muir, Stickeen, 46–67, 73. Michael P. Cohen, The Pathless Way, 348–350, interprets Stickeen’s fearful crossing of the bridge as symbolic of Muir’s emotional self, giving Muir a deeper understanding of his own fears, a greater tolerance for others, and a feeling of responsibility that made him reluctant to lead others into dangerous places in the wild seeking adventure rather than spiritual fulfillment.

8. Dannenbaum, “John Muir in Alaska,” 18–19.

9. Muir, Travels in Alaska, 13–14.

10. Muir, “The Alaska Trip,” 513–526.

11. Muir, Letters From Alaska, 66.

12. Norris, Gawking at the Midnight Sun, 16; Hinckley, “Inside Passage,” 68, 73–74.

13. Buske, “The Wilderness, the Frontier,” vii.

14. Kollin, Nature’s State, 29–37.

15. Muir, Travels in Alaska, 25–26.

16. Ibid., 186.

17. Muir, Cruise of the Corwin, 162.

18. Muir, Story of My Boyhood, 69, 181; Mighetto, Muir Among the Animals, 192.

19. Cohen, Pathless Way, 166, 170–180.

20. Ibid., 174–180, 187.

21. Wolfe, John of the Mountains, 314–315.

22. Dannenbaum, “John Muir in Alaska,” 16–18.

23. Muir, Travels in Alaska, 34–35.

24. Fleck, Henry Thoreau and John Muir, 52, 56–69.

25. Cohen, Pathless Way, 185–186; Muir, Travels in Alaska, 158, 169–170.

26. Young, Alaska Days, 140–141.

27. Catton, Inhabited Wilderness, 8–9, 26–27, 62, 68–69.

28. Tompkins, Alaska: Promyshlennik and Sourdough, 194; Buske, “John Muir and the Alaska Gold Rush,” 40–42, 45.

29. Young, Alaska Days, 208–211; Buske, “John Muir and the Alaska Gold Rush,” 45–49.

30. Buske, “John Muir: Go to Alaska,” 37.

31. Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 283–285.

32. Morse, “Nature of Gold,” 85–86.

33. Tompkins, Alaska: Promyshlennik and Sourdough, 227–235.

34. Heller, Sourdough Sagas, 183–184.

35. Walden, Dog-Puncher on the Yukon, 44–49.

36. Ibid.

37. Ibid.

38. Webb, Yukon Frontiers, 63.

39. Ibid., 75–76.

40. Morse, “Nature of Gold,” 288–290, 312–317.

41. Ibid., 112–119, 132–137, 141.

42. Gruening, State of Alaska, 298.

43. Spence, Northern Gold Fleet, 2, 4, 92–93.

44. Baxter, Labaree, and Hildebrand, On and Off Alaskan Trails, 52–56.

45. Spence, Northern Gold Fleet, 9, 97–98.

46. Morse, “Nature of Gold,” 147–160.

47. Hinckley, “Alaska and the Emergence,” 106–107.

48. Komarek, “Principles of Fire Ecology,” 14–15.

49. Morse, “Nature of Gold,” 114, 243–245.

50. Lutz, Aboriginal Man and White Man, 4, 6, 11, 26 (quotation), 41–42.

51. Pyne, Fire in America, 499–502.

52. Lutz, Ecological Effects of Forest Fires. 13–14, 17–18.

53. Ibid., 14–16.

54. Oakes, Birch Creek, 3–4.

55. Davis, Energy/Alaska, 42–45.

56. J. Dorsey, “Coal Bunkers,” 3–4.

57. Davis, Energy/Alaska, 44–45.

58. S. Evans, Historical View, 507–511, 520, 526–533; Buchanan, “History of Timber Industry,” 46–48.

59. Rakestraw, History of Forest Service in Alaska, 127–128.

60. Powers, “Public Involvement,” 89–105.

61. McNicholas, Alaska’s Agriculture and Forestry, 190–191.

62. Lutz, Ecological Effects of Forest Fires, 19, 80–82, 87, 91–95.

63. U.S. EPA, Climate Change and Alaska, 2–4.

64. Naske and Triplehorn, “The Federal Government and Alaska’s Coal,” 17–21.

65. Kinney, “Copper and the Settlement of South-Central Alaska,” 309–317.

66. Stanton, Alaska Recreation Survey, 72–75.

67. O. Miller, Frontier in Alaska and the Matanuska Colony, 192, 222.

68. Ibid., 207–210, 223–225.

69. Morse, “Nature of Gold,” 204–205.

70. Young, Alaska Days, 204; Vickery, “Bob Marshall,” 81–84.

71. Turner, Sierra Club, 44–45.

72. Cohen, History of Sierra Club, 1, 5–6; Fox, John Muir and His Legacy, 86–88; Bade, Life and Letters of John Muir, 394–395.

73. Cohen, Pathless Way, 203, 286–294, 298.

74. Wolfe, Son of the Wilderness, 270–275.

75. Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 130, 134–136. Later in life (Breaking New Ground, 179), Pinchot acknowledged that “overgrazing does destroy the forest. . . . John Muir called [sheep] hoofed locusts, and he was right.”

76. Cohen, Pathless Way, 206, 278–280, 300, 308.

77. Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 139; Bade, Life and Letters of John Muir, 409–414.

78. Goetzmann and Sloan, Looking Far North: The Harriman Expedition, presents a fascinating account. See 207–212 for list of participants and 214–217 for list of publications.

79. Burroughs, George Bird Grinnell, xii–xvi.

80. Cohen, History of Sierra Club, 21–22; Cohen, Pathless Way, 324.

81. Turner, Sierra Club, 63.

82. Orth, Dictionary of Alaska Place Names, 663.

CHAPTER 5: THE BOONE AND CROCKETT CLUB

1. Burroughs, George Bird Grinnell, xix–xxv.

2. Trefethen, Crusade for Wildlife, 325–327; J. Mitchell, “A Man Called Bird,” 85–89; Reiger, Passing of The Great West, 6–9, 22–31, 108–110.

3. Reiger, American Sportsmen, 30–31; J. Mitchell, “A Man Called Bird,” 88–89; A. Fisher, “In Memoriam: George Bird Grinnell,” 7–8.

4. Dunlap, Saving America’s Wildlife, 6–15. A full articulation of the gentleman-hunter notion, first promulgated in the United States in the 1830s, is found in Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature: The Arcadian Myth in Urban America. Schmitt points to access to surrounding areas by trains from the cities as a crucial element in the spreading of sportsmen’s clubs.

5. R. Evans, George Bird Grinnell, 5–10.

6. Reiger, American Sportsmen, 34, 61–62, 80–81, 104–106, 133.

7. J. Mitchell, “A Man Called Bird,” 90–91.

8. Reiger, American Sportsmen, 118–121, 142–151. Thomas R. Dunlap (“Sport Hunting and Conservation, 1880–1920,” 54–58) interprets the Boone and Crockett name as symbolic of manly pioneer virtues. He sees sport hunting as a ritual, appealing at the turn of the century primarily to men of Anglo-Saxon origin, affirming ties to the pre-industrial and pre-urban past.

9. Reiger, “George Bird Grinnell,” 219–224, 243.

10. Ise, United States Forest Policy, 114–118; Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 85; 26 Stat. 1095, March 3, 1891. The American Academy for the Advancement of Science, American Forestry Association, and irrigation interests helped influence Noble and Harrison (Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency, 36). Spiro, “Patrician Racist,” p. 150, presents the case that Noble’s friend and fellow Boone and Crockett member William Hallett Phillips inserted the reserve provision into the bill.

11. Trefethen, Crusade for Wildlife, 65–66; Trefethen, An American Crusade, 123; Grinnell, Brief History of Boone and Crockett, 8, 23–25; President Benjamin Harrison, Proclamation Nos. 343, 343A, December 24, 1892.

12. Cart, “Struggle for Wildlife Protection,” 111–112. The Pribilof Islands, declared a preserve by Congress in 1869, are sometimes said to be the first federal wildlife refuge.

13. National Cyclopedia of American Biography, Vol. XXX, 1943, 278–279; Who Was Who in America, Vol. I, 489; New York Times, April 12, 1938, 23; J. Mitchell, “A Man Called Bird,” 94–95.

14. A. Fisher, “In Memoriam: George Bird Grinnell,” 11.

15. Trefethen, Crusade for Wildlife, 327.

16. New York Times, April 12, 1938, 23.

17. Spiro, “Patrician Racist,” 86–88.

18. Ibid., 6–9, 16, 19–22.

19. Ibid., 22–24, 45–47.

20. Ibid., 28, 32, 152, 155–160, 225–226.

21. Ibid., 239–243.

22. Grant, “Condition of Wild Life in Alaska,” 522–523.

23. Ibid., 523.

24. Spiro, “Patrician Racist,” 123–136; Grinnell, Brief History of Boone and Crockett, 37–39; Cameron, Bureau of Biological Survey, 111–112; 32 Stat. 327, June 7, 1902; 35 Stat. 102, May 11, 1908.

25. Spiro, “Patrician Racist,” 142–146, 188–192, 739–747.

26. Ibid., 950; National Cyclopedia of American Biography, Vol. XXIX, 1941, 319–320; Trefethen, Crusade for Wildlife, 81–82, 277–278, 288; Bridges, Gathering of Animals, 5–10, 285–289; Dictionary of American Biography, Vol. XI, Part 2, 1958, 256; Stone, “An Explorer-Naturalist,” 448; New York Times, May 31, 1937, 15.

27. Spiro, “Patrician Racist,” vii–ix, 116–122. Spiro provides a full treatment of Grant’s work regarding race, as well as the most complete available coverage of his conservation work.

28. Bridges, Gathering of Animals, 1–13; New York Zoological Society, News Release, May 30, 1937.

29. Alexander, Museum in America, 189–192; Sterling, Biological Dictionary of American and Canadian Naturalists and Environmentalists, 378–379.

30. Bridges, Gathering of Animals, 20–22, 257–261, 276–279, 483–484; National Cyclopedia of American Biography, Vol. IV, 1897, 192; Who Was Who in America, Vol. I, 588; Blair, “William Temple Hornaday,” 47–49; New York Times, March 7, 1937, II: 9; New York Herald Tribune, March 7, 1937.

31. Alexander, Museum in America, 196.

32. Hornaday, “A National Game Preserve in Alaska,” 188–189.

33. Hornaday, Our Vanishing Wild Life, 269–270.

34. Hornaday, Wild Life Conservation, 162–165.

35. Hornaday, Our Vanishing Wild Life, 203.

36. Mighetto, Wild Animals and American Environmental Ethics, 69, 78–82, 84.

37. Tracy, American Naturalists, 138.

38. New York Herald Tribune, March 8, 1937; Who Was Who in America, Vol. I, 588.

39. Bridges, Gathering of Animals, 172–173.

40. New York Times, March 7, 1937, II: 9.

41. Bridges, Gathering of Animals, 444, 468–469.

42. New York Times, January 29, 1942, 13; National Cyclopedia of American Biography, Vol. XXXII, 1941, 37.

43. Bridges, Gathering of Animals, 202–206.

44. Townsend, “Pribilof Seal Herd,” 569.

45. Spiro, “Patrician Racist,” 237–238.

46. Trefethen, Crusade for Wildlife, 130, 151, 245–246, 299.

47. Who Was Who in America, Vol. I, 1113; Carmony and Brown, Wilderness of the Southwest, xiii–xviii, xxii.

48. Carmony and Brown, Wilderness in the Southwest, xx, xxii; Sterling, Biological Dictionary of American and Canadian Naturalists and Environmentalists, 727–728.

49. Carmony and Brown, Wilderness in the Southwest, xxiii–xxvii, xxix.

50. Trefethen, Crusade for Wildlife, 242–247.

51. W. Sheldon, “Biographical Notes.”

52. Carmony and Brown, Wilderness of the Southwest, xxxii–xxxv, xl–xli.

53. Trefethen, An American Crusade, 191; Trefethen, Crusade for Wildlife, 151 (quotation).

54. Brown, History of Denali–Mount McKinley, 76–77.

55. Trefethen, Crusade for Wildlife, 217–222, 226–228; Sherwood, Big Game in Alaska, 34–37.

56. C. Sheldon, Wilderness of Denali, ix–xvii (introduction by Merriam).

57. Trefethen, Crusade for Wildlife, 180.

CHAPTER 6: CHARLES SHELDON AND MT. McKINLEY NATIONAL PARK

1. C. Sheldon, Wilderness of Denali, 8–9.

2. Orth, Dictionary of Alaska Place Names, 610.

3. Moore, Mt. McKinley: The Pioneer Climbs, 1, 4–5, 9. Other names for the mountain: Doleyka, Traleyka, and Bulshaia Gora (Russian for “Great Mountain”).

4. Ibid., 9–10, 14, 17.

5. Brown, History of Denali–Mount McKinley, 13–15, 18.

6. Ibid., 19–23.

7. Moore, Mt. McKinley: The Pioneer Climbs, 31, 39, 42–44, 52–54, 78, 81, 84, 159–161.

8. Carmony and Brown, Wilderness of the Southwest, xxviii, xli; Cook, Frederick A., To the Top of the Continent (New York: Doubleday, Page, 1908).

9. Moore, Mt. Mckinley: The Pioneer Climbs, 96–98, 108–110, 115–118, 146, 150.

10. G. Pearson, History of Mount McKinley, 16, 23–24.

11. Brown, History of Denali–Mount McKinley, 84–91.

12. G. Pearson, History of Mount McKinley, 24–25, 60–61; Grant, “Establishment of Mount McKinley Park,” 439–441. Belmore Browne (Analysis by Belmore Browne for the Committee on Conservation of the Report of Dr. Adolph Murie’s “The Wolves of Mt. McKinley,” 16) asserted that he first convinced Franklin Lane of the need for a park in 1912 and helped Riggs draw the original boundaries.

13. Trefethen, Crusade for Wildlife, 186, 189–191; Bates, Mountain Man, xv–xvii, 178; Kennedy, “Belmore Browne and Alaska,” 96–100, 103–104.

14. G. Pearson, History of Mount McKinley, 27–62; Grant, “Establishment of Mount McKinley Park,” 442–444; Bates, Mountain Man, 178–179.

15. “Belmore Browne,” reprint from AHFAM Newsletter.

16. House Subcom. on Public Lands, Mount McKinley National Park, 1, 12–13, 20–26.

17. Capps, “A Game Country Without Rival,” 81–82.

18. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, National Park Service, Proceedings, 195, 197.

19. 39 Stat. 938, February 21, 1917.

20. Brown, History of Denali–Mount McKinley, 92–95, 135–136, 162–164.

21. Ise, Our National Park Policy, 226–229; Brown, History of Denali–Mount McKinley, 186; G. Pearson, History of Mount McKinley, 28–30.

22. Catton, Inhabited Wilderness, 88; Brown, History of Denali–Mount McKinley, 71–72, 127–129.

23. Brown, History of Denali–Mount McKinley, 160–162, 196–200.

24. Ibid., 110–113, 206, 235.

25. Capps, “Mount McKinley,” 12.

26. Brown, History of Denali–Mount McKinley, 101, 141–142, 159, 191.

27. Ibid., 171–172.

28. Stanton, Alaska Recreational Survey, 98–99.

29. Brown, History of Denali–Mount McKinley, 198, 201, 204, 214–215, 223–224, 237; 94 Stat. 2371, December 2, 1980, Sec. 202(3)(a).

30. P. and C. Martin, “Charlie Ott,” 51–54; Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, “Four to Receive Honorary Degrees at UAF,” February 11, 1989, 7.

31. A. Murie, Mammals of Mt. McKinley, 20, 56; A. Murie, Birds of Mt. McKinley, 95–96.

32. Orth, Dictionary of Alaska Place Names, 162, 863.

CHAPTER 7: ROBERT F. GRIGGS AND KATMAI NATIONAL MONUMENT

1. Griggs, Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, 17.

2. Alaska Travel, Exploring Katmai, 50–51.

3. G. Martin, “Recent Eruption of Katmai,” 148, 152.

4. Schaaf, “Witness,” 4–5.

5. Griggs, Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, 25–27, 31–33; Alaska Travel, Exploring Katmai, 54.

6. Bodeau, Katmai National Park, 74–75.

7. L. Black, Russians in Alaska, 108, 130; Hussey, Embattled Katmai, 176–180, 186, 212–213, 273–274 (quotation).

8. Bodeau, Katmai National Park, 76–79.

9. Krech, Victorian Earl in the Arctic, 86–87, 86 (quotation); Hussey, Embattled Katmai, 275–277.

10. Spurr, “A Reconnaissance,” 91–92.

11. Hussey, Embattled Katmai, 294, 335, 370.

12. Cahalane, “Katmai—America’s Largest Nature Reserve,” 172–174.

13. Hussey, Embattled Katmai, 370–371, 377–378.

14. G. Martin, “Recent Eruption of Katmai,” 131–141, 152.

15. Ibid., 145–148, 166–167, 170, 174, 179–181.

16. Evermann, Alaska Fisheries and Fur Industries in 1913, 32–33, 161–165.

17. Hussey, Embattled Katmai, 370–371, 377–378, 382; Griggs, We Two Together, 1, 16, 25–26, 47, 161–162, 168.

18. Alaska Travel, Exploring Katmai, 69.

19. Griggs, Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, 81–82, 155, 161–164.

20. Griggs, “Beginnings of Revegetation,” 320–324, 329–330, 335–342.

21. Griggs, “Recovery of Vegetation,” 6, 24.

22. Ibid., 3, 6, 31–33, 37–44, 47–49, 54–56.

23. Griggs, “Colonization of Katmai Ash,” 92–94, 110–112.

24. Hussey, Embattled Katmai, 380, 389.

25. Griggs, Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, 153–154.

26. Hussey, Embattled Katmai, 398–401, 409–412.

27. Griggs, “Eruption of Katmai,” 498–499.

28. Kauffmann, Katmai National Monument, 2.

29. Hussey, Embattled Katmai, 409–415, 455; President Woodrow Wilson, Proclamation No. 1487, September 24, 1918.

30. Griggs, Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, 231.

31. Norris, Isolated Paradise, 41–42.

32. Hubbard, Cradle of the Storms, 168, 186; Willoughby, “Volcanoes Packed in Ice,” 18–19, 96.

33. Hubbard, Cradle of the Storms, 186, 194–197.

34. Ibid., 230–231.

35. Norris, Isolated Paradise, 38–41; Hussey, Embattled Katmai, 419–420 (quotation).

36. Hussey, Embattled Katmai, 421–422, 428; Norris, Isolated Paradise, 45–50; President Herbert Hoover, Proclamation No. 1950, April 24, 1931.

37. Norris, Isolated Paradise, 42–44.

38. Ibid., 51–52, 55–64, 72–73, 77, 80.

39. Ibid., 68.

40. Bodeau, Katmai National Park, 108–109.

41. Ibid., 109; Cahalane, “Katmai—A Wilderness to Be Guarded,” 10–11; 68 Stat. 53, April 15, 1954.

42. Norris, Isolated Paradise, 76; Cahalane, “Katmai—A Wilderness to Be Guarded,” 11.

43. Norris, Isolated Paradise, 90–91.

44. Birkedal, “Ancient Hunters,” 229–231; Luntey, “Katmai National Monument,” 8.

45. Kavanaugh, “Removal of Fish Ladder”; Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game, “Detailed Rationale,” 1–6.

46. Luntey, “Katmai National Monument,” 8–13.

47. Science News Letter, “Wrong Volcano Blamed,” 246.

48. Cahalane, Biological Survey of Katmai, 68–72.

49. Kauffmann, Katmai National Monument, 36.

50. Bodeau, Katmai National Park, 109–111; Norris, Isolated Paradise, 79–80, 90–94, 107–115, 118.

51. Johnson, Lyndon B., Proclamation No. 3890, January 20, 1969; Alaska Travel, Exploring Katmai, 77–78.

52. Simmerman, Alaska’s Parklands, 173–175.

53. Orth, Dictionary of Alaska Place Names, 392.

54. Cahalane, Biological Survey of Katmai, 84.

55. Alaska Travel, Exploring Katmai, 114, 157.

CHAPTER 8: JOHN MUIR, WILLIAM S. COOPER, AND GLACIER BAY NATIONAL MONUMENT

1. Bohn, Glacier Bay, 38, 40–48.

2. Muir, “The Alaska Trip,” 524–525.

3. Muir, “The Discovery of Glacier Bay,” 239.

4. Catton, Land Reborn, 37–39. Orth, Dictionary of Alaska Place Names, 369, identifies U.S. Navy Captain L.A. Beardslee as having named Glacier Bay. S. Hall Young (Hall Young of Alaska, 204) stated that he suggested naming the glacier for Muir to Navy officers at Sitka immediately after the 1880 visit to the glacier, and Captain Beardslee forwarded it to Washington for approval.

5. Kurtz, Glacier Bay: Historic Resources Study, 3; La Perouse, Voyage, Vol. I, 367, 371, 378–391, 394–399.

6. La Perouse, Voyage, Vol. I, 77–134; Alaska Magazine, “Alaskan Adventures of Perouse,” 109, 117, 124–137.

7. Makarova, Russians on the Pacific, 152.

8. Kurtz, Glacier Bay: Historic Resources Study, 6.

9. Bohn, Glacier Bay, 33.

10. Ibid., 30–31.

11. Kurtz, Glacier Bay: Historic Resources Study, 37–38.

12. Ibid., 25–26.

13. Catton, Land Reborn, 39–44.

14. Lawrence, “Memorial to William Skinner Cooper”; Clepper, Leaders in American Conservation, 79–80.

15. Catton, Land Reborn, 45–49; Cooper, “Recent Ecological History, 1: Interglacial Forests,” 93–94; “3: Permanent Quadrats,” 355–356, 364–365, 365 (quotation).

16. Cooper, “Contribution to the History of Glacier Bay”; Bohn, Glacier Bay, 82, 94 (quotation).

17. B. Black, “History of Glacier Bay,” 29–30, 73; Kauffmann, Glacier Bay: A History, 6–7.

18. Kauffmann, Glacier Bay: A History, 1.

19. Catton, Land Reborn, 51–54; President Calvin Coolidge, Executive Order No. 3983, April 1, 1924.

20. Daily Alaska Empire, April 28, 1924.

21. Kauffmann, Glacier Bay: A History, 6–7.

22. Catton, Land Reborn, 56–58; President Calvin Coolidge, Proclamation No. 1733, February 26, 1925.

23. Kurtz, Glacier Bay: Historic Resources Study, 48–49, 51–54, 57–58.

24. Catton, Land Reborn, 92–96.

25. Bohn, Glacier Bay, 87; B. Black, “History of Glacier Bay,” 46–70; Rossman, “Geology and Ore Deposits,” 37; Cooper, letter to U.S. Rep. Seiberling, July 23, 1976.

26. Bohn, Glacier Bay, 99.

27. Ibid., 89; Rossman, “Geology and Ore Deposits,” 37.

28. Catton, Land Reborn, 173–174, 188–189; 30 Stat. 1342, September 28, 1976.

29. Rakestraw, History of Forest Service in Alaska, 113–114; Kauffmann, Glacier Bay: A History, 11–34; President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Proclamation No. 2330, April 18, 1939.

30. Bohn, Glacier Bay, 101.

31. Kauffmann, Glacier Bay: A History, 39–41, 44–52.

32. B. Black, “History of Glacier Bay,” 71–78.

33. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, Executive Order No. 3089, March 31, 1955.

34. B. Black, “History of Glacier Bay,” 77–78, 77 (quotation); Bohn, Glacier Bay, 104.

35. Catton, Land Reborn, 29–30, 102, 109, 114, 119.

36. Ibid., 103–106, 109–110, 114, 127–128, 131, 191–202.

37. Ibid., 107–108, 111–114, 122, 198, 202–204.

38. Catton, Inhabited Wilderness, 78–85; Tlingit and Haida Indians of Alaska v. United States, 177 F. Supp. 452 (Court of Claims, 1959); 85 Stat. 688, December 18, 1971; 94 Stat. 2371, December 2, 1980; 86 Stat. 1027, October 21, 1972.

39. Catton, Land Reborn, chaps. 12–15.

40. Ibid., 164, 168–170.

41. Norris, “Lone Voice in the Wilderness,” 73–74, 76n34.

42. Cooper, “Remarks at Dedication of Lodge.”

43. J. Dufresne, Glacier Bay National Park, 24–29; Streveler and Paige, Natural History of Glacier Bay, 47–48.

44. Lawrence, “Memorial to William S. Cooper.”

CHAPTER 9: NATIVES: THE FIRST ENVIRONMENTALISTS?

1. Grinnell, “American Game Protection,” 209–211.

2. Liapunova, “Relations With Natives,” 108.

3. D. Spencer, “Aleutian Islands National Wildlife Refuge,” 12, 16–17.

4. Veniaminov, Notes on the Islands, 215.

5. Elliott, “Ten Years’ Acquaintance,” 812–813.

6. Rogers, Alaska in Transition, 276–278; Robert E. Price, interview by author, July 15, 1989.

7. de Laguna, Under Mount Saint Elias, Part 1, 361–362; Part 2, 823–824.

8. Birkedal, “Ancient Hunters,” 233.

9. R. Nelson, Make Prayers to the Raven, 210–211.

10. Ibid., 220.

11. Ibid., 221–222.

12. R. Nelson, Hunters of the Northern Forest, 155, 311.

13. M. Webb, Last Frontier, 302.

14. Stephenson et al., “Wood Bison,” 129–133, 143–146.

15. C. Martin, “American Indian,” 245, 248.

16. C. Martin, Keepers of the Game, 164, 170–185; see also Krech, Indians, Animals and the Fur Trade. Most articles in Krech attribute Native game exploitation to economic motives but view Martin’s “war on animals” thesis as overdrawn.

17. Eskimoan peoples are culturally, linguistically, and genetically related groups who live in Arctic Canada, Greenland, Siberia, and Alaska and in parts of subarctic Alaska. Canadian and Greenland Eskimos refer to themselves as Inuit. The subgroup Inupiat are found in Alaska mostly north of the Bering Strait and include Nunamiut in the interior. Yupik, or Yup’ik, live in eastern Siberia and in Alaska generally south of Bering Strait to the Kuskokwim Delta, Kodiak Island (Koniag Alutiiq), and Prince William Sound (Chugach Alutiiq). Aleuts, living in the Aleutians and on the western Alaska Peninsula, are not considered Eskimoan. Subgroups of Athabaskan Indians live in the interior and Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian Indians in coastal Southeast Alaska. The term “Eskimo” is commonly, and incorrectly according to some philologists, believed to be an Athabaskan term meaning “eaters of raw meat.” On the assumption that the term is pejorative, attempts have been made to substitute “Inuit” for “Eskimo.” The proposed change is not in common use in Alaska. Alaskan Eskimos normally refer to themselves as members of their cultural or geographical subgroups; e.g., Inupiat, Yup’ik, Koniag, Chugach, or Alutiiq. Collectively, Native Americans in Alaska identify themselves as Alaska Natives. (See Borneman, Alaska, 19–26; http://www.Dictionary.LaborLawTalk.com.)

18. R. Spencer, North Alaskan Eskimo, 268–269.

19. Osterman, Alaska Eskimos, 37.

20. J. Campbell, “Aboriginal Human Overkill,” 184–193, 200.

21. Coady, “History of Moose,” 63–67.

22. Lent, “Alaska’s Indigenous Muskoxen,” 135, 138–142.

23. Fienup-Riordan, Eskimo Essays, 45–48, 167–168, 172–174, 183.

24. Lutz, Aboriginal Man and White Man, 4, 6 (quotation), 11, 26, 41–42.

25. Johnson, “Upper Tanana Athapaskan Fire Ecology,” 15.

26. Hames, “Wildlife Conservation,” 173–178, 182, 188–191.

27. Sherwood, Big Game in Alaska, 108.

28. Hames, “Wildlife Conservation,” 191–193.

29. Muir, Travels in Alaska, 285.

30. Perspectives on identity crisis, particularly involving Eskimos, are well summarized by Pender in “Alaska Natives,” 25–27. See also Anders, “Critical Analysis of the Alaska Native Land Claims,” 9–10; and Harris, “Survival of Respect.”

31. C. Martin, “American Indian,” 245, 249–251.

32. Hames, “Wildlife Conservation,” 193.

33. Huntington, Wildlife Management, 4–12, 30–31.

34. Ibid., 9–10, 23, 28–29; Ross, Environmental Conflict, 85–87.

35. Ross, Environmental Conflict, 33–38, 82, 86, 284–287, 307.

36. Catton, Inhabited Wilderness, 173.

CHAPTER 10: BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY CHIEFS

1. Jordan and Clark, Seal and Salmon Fisheries, Vol. 2, 441.

2. Loring, “Notes on the Destruction,” 141–143.

3. A. Bailey, Notes on Game Conditions, 7.

4. Hornaday, Our Vanishing Wild Life, 46.

5. Scott, Chatelain, and Elkins, “Status of Dall Sheep and Caribou,” 613, 616.

6. State of Alaska, Report of Governor to Secretary of Interior, 1899, 10; 1910, 22.

7. Cane, Summer and Fall, 116.

8. Ibid., 85.

9. Ibid., 87.

10. Ibid., 75, 116, 137.

11. Radclyffe, Big Game Shooting, 27, 29 (quotation), 73, 76–77.

12. Madsen, Arctic Trader, 222–228.

13. Scull, Hunting in the Arctic, 10, 291–294.

14. Madsen, Arctic Trader, 223–224; ibid., 85, 151–153, 166, 250–253, 272.

15. Loftus, “Tom Gibson,” Part 2, 6–7; Part 3, 20–21.

16. Grinnell, Brief History of Boone and Crockett, 37–40; Cameron, Bureau of Biological Survey, 111–112; 32 Stat. 327, June 7, 1902; 35 Stat 102, May 11, 1908.

17. Annual Report of Governor on Alaska Game Law, 1914, 9–14; 1916, 3; 35 Stat. 102, May 11, 1908.

18. D. Mitchell, Sold American, 181–187.

19. Annual Report of Governor on Alaska Game Law, 1918, 8–9; 1920, 11.

20. Bridges, Gathering of Animals, 273–275; Sherwood, Big Game in Alaska, 44–48.

21. Annual Report of Governor on Alaska Game Law, 1911, 4–5; 1918, 2–3.

22. Gruening, State of Alaska, 151, 165, 301, 323, 327–332.

23. Ibid., 145, 147, 151, 306.

24. Barrow, Passion for Birds, 57–58.

25. Osgood, “Clinton Hart Merriam,” 421–433; Cameron, Bureau of Biological Survey, 18–23; Sterling, Selected Works, Introduction.

26. Cart, “Struggle for Wildlife Protection,” 5, 49, 54–55, 62–63, 115, 121, 129.

27. Ibid., 30–32, 42, 103, 152–153.

28. Ibid., 4, 8–12, 67–68, 97, 103–106, 145–151, 182.

29. Worster, Nature’s Economy, 195–198.

30. Sterling, Last of the Naturalists, 290, 294–306.

31. Ibid., 256–258, 257 (quotation), 309–310; Sterling, “Builders of the U.S. Biological Survey,” 181, 187.

32. Sterling, Last of the Naturalists, 319–323; Who’s Who in America, Vol. 20, 1938–1939, 1735; New York Times, March 21, 1942, 17; Osgood, “Clinton Hart Merriam,” 430–431; Orth, Dictionary of Alaska Place Names, 422–424.

33. Osgood, “Clinton Hart Merriam,” 432–434; Sterling, “Builders of the U.S. Biological Survey,” 181.

34. Trefethen, Crusade for Wildlife, 172–173, 245; Cart, “Struggle for Wildlife Protection,” 74–75; Sterling, “Builders of the U.S. Biological Survey,” 182–183; Sterling, Biographical Dictionary of American and Canadian Naturalists and Environmentalists, 608–609; Who Was Who in America, Vol. III, 662–663.

35. Trefethen, Crusade for Wildlife, 172; Graham, Man’s Dominion, 217.

36. De Sormo, John Bird Burnham, 178, 180–182, 190.

37. Cameron, Bureau of Biological Survey, 119.

38. National Cyclopedia of American Biography, Vol. XXVI, 1937, 434; Who Was Who in America, Vol. I, 890; Goldman, “Edward William Nelson,” 136–142; E. Nelson, The Eskimo About Bering Strait, 10–11.

39. E. Nelson, Report Upon Natural History Collections, 11–14.

40. E. Nelson, The Eskimo About Bering Strait, 7.

41. Orth, Dictionary of Alaska Place Names, 681.

42. Lantis, “Edward William Nelson,” 8–11.

43. National Cyclopedia of American Biography, Vol. XXVI, 1937, 434; Who Was Who in America, Vol. I, 890; Trefethen, Crusade for Wildlife, 129–130, 156; Goldman, “Edward William Nelson,” 147–148.

44. E. Nelson, “Economic Importance of Wild Life,” 367–368.

45. Carmony and Brown, Wilderness of the Southwest, 37.

46. U.S. House Committee on Territories, Hearings: To Regulate the Killing and Sale of Certain Game Animals, Part 1, 4–6.

47. Ibid., 14, 19–20, 43.

48. Ibid., Part 2, 65, 68.

49. Ibid., 78, 80–81, 80 (quotation), 87, 92.

50. Annual Report of Governor on Alaska Game Law, 1920, 2–3.

51. A. Bailey, Notes on Game Conditions, 3.

52. Ibid., 10, 12, 17–18.

53. O. Murie, letter to Edward W. Nelson, January 7, 1922.

54. Sherwood, Big Game in Alaska, 50, 119–120; Cameron, Bureau of Biological Survey, 119–121.

55. U.S. House Committee on Agriculture, Hearings: Alaska Game Act, 8–16.

56. 43 Stat. 739, January 13, 1925.

57. Greeley, Handbook of Alaska, 187.

58. Sherwood, Big Game in Alaska, 119–120.

59. Redington, “United States Bureau of Biological Survey,” 295–306.

60. Cart, “‘New Deal’ for Wildlife,” 114–120.

61. Clepper, Leaders in American Conservation, 126–127; Halle, “Gabrielson,” 140–143; Gabrielson and Lincoln, Birds of Alaska, 25.

62. Gabrielson, Wildlife Conservation, 11 and flyleaf.

63. Dunlap, Saving America’s Wildlife, 128.

64. Fox, John Muir and His Legacy, 251; Sterling, Biographical Dictionary of American and Canadian Naturalists and Environmentalists, 295–296.

65. Halle, “Gabrielson,” 140–142.

66. Fox, John Muir and His Legacy, 251.

CHAPTER 11: ALASKAN WILDLIFE MANAGERS

1. 43 Stat. 739, January 13, 1925.

2. Alaska Game Commission, Annual Report, 1958–59, 1–2; Popular Mechanics, “Man’s Law on the Yukon,” 291–293.

3. D. Mitchell, Sold American, 187–192.

4. Territory of Alaska, Session Laws, 1935, HJM No. 7, 206–207.

5. Alaska Game Commission, 1942 Annual Report, 6; 5th Annual Report, 1943–44, 2.

6. Alaska Game Commission, Eleventh Report of Executive Officer, 1935–36, 18.

7. Alaska Game Commission, 14th Annual Report, 1937–38, 4.

8. Ibid.

9. Alaska Game Commission, 15th Annual Report, 1938–39, 4–5; White and Rhode, Report on Alaska-Yukon Boundary Patrol, 1, 8–9.

10. S.O. White, letter to Jim King, January 27, 1970; S.O. White, “Sam White, Alaskan,” Part 3 (February 1965), 47; Part 4 (March 1965), 48; Part 6 (June 1965), 56. The series by White ran in Alaska Sportsman from December 1964 to June 1965.

11. Alaska Game Commission, 4th Annual Report, 1942–43, 2; 14th Annual Report, 1952–53, 45; 18th Annual Report, 1956–57, 26.

12. Sherwood, Big Game in Alaska, 138–143; Alaska Game Commission, 6th Annual Report, 1944–45, Introduction.

13. Alaska Game Commission, 5th Annual Report, 1943–44, 3.

14. Bezeau, “Realities of Strategic Planning,” 26–33.

15. Naske, “The Alcan,” 14–18; Borneman, Alaska, 236–241.

16. James G. King, interview by author, July 5, 1989.

17. Alaska Game Commission, 10th and 11th Annual Report, 1948–50, 10.

18. Bowkett, Reaching for a Star, 52–55.

19. F. Dufresne, My Way Was North, 4–35, 66–75.

20. Sherwood, Big Game in Alaska, 9–10.

21. F. Dufresne, My Way Was North, 164, 261, 273.

22. F. Dufresne, No Room For Bears, 232–252.

23. F. Dufresne, “Whose Wilderness?” 23–26, 56–58.

24. Ibid., 9.

25. F. Dufresne, My Way Was North, vii.

26. Rearden, “Clarence Rhode,” 11–14; J.G. King, “Pre-Statehood Alaska,” 172; S.O. White, “Sam White, Alaskan,” Part 4, 48.

27. Annabel, “Trouble in Alaska’s Game Lands,” 34–35, 48.

28. J.G. King, “Pre-Statehood Alaska,” 175.

29. Dugan, “Poacher Patrol,” 92–94.

30. J.G. King, “Pre-Statehood Alaska,” 175.

31. Annabel, Hunting and Fishing in Alaska, 3–7.

32. O. Murie, “Wilderness and Aircraft,” 1–2.

33. Ibid., 4, 6.

34. East, “Threat to Alaska Bears,” 17.

35. Annabel, “Trouble in Alaska’s Game Lands,” 35.

36. Ibid., 47–48; Catton, Inhabited Wilderness, 180–182, 253n50; photo FWS 1217, Alaska Resources Library and Information Services, Anchorage.

37. Rearden, “Clarence Rhode,” 13–14.

38. Ibid., 14, 51; James G. King, interview by author, February 14, 1988.

39. D.S. Miller, “Finding Clarence Rhode’s Plane,” 17; D.S. Miller, Midnight Wilderness, 150–155.

40. Rearden, “Commissioner Jim Brooks,” 21; Phinizy, “Savers vs. the Spoilers,” 27; J. Brooks, North to Wolf Country, chaps. 1–6.

41. James W. Brooks, interview by author, June 30, 1988; J. Brooks, North to Wolf Country, 106, 111–113.

42. J. Brooks, North to Wolf Country, chaps, 10–13; Rearden, “Commissioner Jim Brooks,” 21, 56.

43. Rearden, “Commissioner Jim Brooks,” 21, 56–61; Atwood and De Armond, Who’s Who, 11; Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, “Four to Receive Honorary Degrees at UAF,” February 11, 1989, 7.

44. J. Brooks, North to Wolf Country, chaps. 16, 17, 20.

45. Rearden, “Commissioner Jim Brooks,” 58, 61; James W. Brooks, interview by author, June 30, 1988; Alaska Dept. of Natural Resources, Promised Land, 28.

46. J. Brooks, North to Wolf Country, chap. 28.

47. “Resume, James G. King”; Jim King, letter to author, December 14, 1989; Robert B. Weeden, interview by author, August 15, 1989.

48. James G. King, interview by author, July 13, 1989.

49. J.G. King, “My Fifty Years,” 271.

50. “Resume, James G. King”; Robert B. Weeden, interview by author, August 15, 1989; King, letters to author, December 14, 1989, and September 3, 1991; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Pioneers Oral History Project, interview of Calvin J. Lensink, February 25, 1998, Tape 1, sides 1 and 2.

51. “Resume, James G. King.”

CHAPTER 12: GRIZZLY BEARS IN POLITICS

1. Birkedal, “Ancient Hunters,” 228, 231–232.

2. Berkh, Chronological History, 110–113.

3. Golovin, End of Russian America, 80.

4. Petroff, “Report on the Population,” 253–254.

5. Rearden, “Brownie,” 35; Osgood, Biological Reconnaissance, 42.

6. Radclyffe, Big Game Shooting, 33.

7. Thomas, Trails and Tramps, 75.

8. O. Murie, Fauna of the Aleutian Islands, 269.

9. Cane, Summer and Fall, 72, 75, 137.

10. C. Sheldon, Wilderness of the North Pacific, 105–110.

11. Ibid., 111, 127–128.

12. Ibid., 79–83; Sheldon, untitled interview by sporting writer.

13. Mixter, “Hunting the Great Brown Bear,” 313, 329, 332–333.

14. Annabel, Hunting and Fishing in Alaska, 42.

15. Grinnell, Brief History of Boone and Crockett Club, 37–41; Sherwood, Big Game in Alaska, 27–31; 32 Stat. 327, June 7, 1902; 35 Stat. 102, May 11, 1908.

16. Kleinschmidt, “Alaska: Her Game and Game Laws,” 95, 98.

17. Madsen, “Report on Game Conditions,” 4–5, 8.

18. A. Brooks, Blazing Alaska’s Trails, 74–75.

19. Report of Governor to Secretary of Interior, 1915, 25.

20. Ibid., 1916, 62.

21. Ibid., 1919, 62–63; Annual Report of Governor on Alaska Game Law, 1920, 4.

22. Annual Report of Governor on Alaska Game Law, 1912, 6–7.

23. A. Bailey, Notes on Game Conditions, 16.

24. Annual Report of Governor on Alaska Game Law, 1920, 7–8; Sherwood, Big Game in Alaska, 35–39; Merriam, Review of Grizzly, 2–3, 7–9.

25. Sherwood, Big Game in Alaska, 35–41; Sherwood, “Specious Speciation,” 49–60.

26. Spiro, “Patrician Racist,” 729–730.

27. Hornaday, Thirty Years War, 221–222.

28. Senate Special Committee on Wildlife Resources, Brown Bear, 46.

29. Report of Governor to Secretary of Interior, 1929, 60; Sherwood, Big Game in Alaska, 53–55.

30. Hornaday, Thirty Years War, 222.

31. Alaska Game Commission, Annual Report of Executive Officer, 1930, 55–63.

32. Pegues, “Alaska’s Brownie,” 36, 62.

33. Holzworth, Wild Grizzlies of Alaska, x–xii, 318–322, 338, 352.

34. Senate Special Committee on Wildlife Resources, Brown Bear, 1, 29; S.E. White, “An Emergency,” 5, 213.

35. Alaska Game Commission, Twelfth Annual Report, 1935–36, 34.

36. Kauffmann, Katmai National Monument, 12.

37. Pack, “Admiralty’s Bears,” 112.

38. Catton, Land Reborn, 69–77, 81.

39. Ibid., 74, 79–83; President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Proclamation No. 2330, April 18, 1939.

40. Troyer and Hensel, “Brown Bear of Kodiak,” 187–189.

41. Madsen, “Report on Game Conditions,” 4.

42. Alaska Game Commission, Annual Report of Executive Officer, 1930, 60–61.

43. Sherwood, Big Game in Alaska, 52–53, 57–60; Sarber, Report of the Kodiak Brown Bear Control Project, 24, 27, 34–35.

44. Troyer and Hensel, “Brown Bear of Kodiak,” 191.

45. Sherwood, Big Game in Alaska, 57–58; Territory of Alaska, Session Laws, 1935, HJM No. 7, 206–207.

46. Rowland and Kinsley, Report on Kodiak Island, 21–22, 28–30.

47. Troyer and Hensel, “Brown Bear of Kodiak,” 192–193.

48. Troyer, Status of Brown Bear, 1–2.

49. Troyer and Hensel, “Brown Bear of Kodiak,” 193.

50. Gabrielson, “Crisis for Alaskan Wildlife,” 348–353, 394–395.

51. Troyer and Hensel, “Brown Bear of Kodiak,” 189–190, 194–195.

52. Annual Report of Alaska Game Commission, 1958–59, 42.

53. Rearden, “Kodiak Bear War,” 17–19, 70–74.

54. Eide, “Nature of Brown Bear Predation,” 1–4.

55. McKnight, History of Predator Control, 7.

56. 43 Stat. 739, January 13, 1925, Sec. 10; Troyer, “Brown Bear Harvest,” 460, 467.

57. Troyer, Status of Brown Bear, 2–4.

58. Alaska Game Commission, Twelfth Annual Report of Executive Officer, 1936–37, 99; Zimmerman, “Land of the Big Brown Bear,” 41, 44–45.

59. Chase, Alaska’s Mammoth Brown Bears, 122.

60. Rearden, “Brownie,” 51.

61. S. Evans, Historical View, 534; Rakestraw, History of Forest Service in Alaska, 114–116.

62. Powers, “Public Involvement,” 64–66; Heintzleman, letter to Journal of Forestry, 510.

63. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, U.S. Government Reservations in Alaska, 23–24.

64. Buchanan, “History of Timber Industry,” 28–40.

65. Heintzleman, “Managing the Brown Bear,” 329–332.

66. Ford and Dufresne, “Lost Paradise,” 64.

67. Powers, “Public Involvement,” 104.

68. The Spirit, “Gunning for Predators,” 1, 4.

CHAPTER 13: FRONTIER JUSTICE: PREDATOR CONTROL

1. 43 Stat. 739, January 13, 1925.

2. Jordan and Clark, Seal and Salmon Fisheries, Vol. 3, 510–511.

3. Worster, Nature’s Economy, 262–264.

4. Mighetto, Wild Animals and American Environmental Ethics, 76, 79–80, 84–85, 95.

5. James G. King, interview by author, July 13, 1989.

6. Report of Governor to Secretary of Interior, 1912, 19.

7. E. Jones, Report of Alaska Investigations in 1914, 112.

8. Report of Governor to Secretary of Interior, 1915, 62–63.

9. Annual Report of Governor on Alaska Game Law, 1922, 3.

10. Lensink, “Predator Control,” 94.

11. Alaska Game Commission, Annual Report, 1928, 19, 32–34; 1929, 51–62; 1930, 83–84; 1934, 69; 1935, 63–64; 1936, 31–32, 61. Sherwood (Big Game in Alaska, 90) mentions a coyote seen on the Stikine River in 1899.

12. A. Bailey, Notes on Game Conditions, 7.

13. Alaska Game Commission, Annual Report, 1927, 28; 1928–29, 20; 1931–32; 1945, 7; 1946, 7; Dufresne, Quarterly Report, 1937, 7; 1941; Annual Report of Alaska Game Commission, 1958–59, 38–39.

14. Stewart, Report to Governor, 13, 16, 18–19, 28; O. Murie, Alaska-Yukon Caribou, 7.

15. Dunlap, Saving America’s Wildlife, 19, 22, 38–39, 45, 48, 58–60, 79–83; Seton’s wolf story first appeared in Scribner’s 16 (November 1894): 618–628; reprinted in Wild Animals I Have Known and Lives of the Hunted (Scribner’s, 1901). See also Adams, Guide to the Study of Animal Ecology; Leopold, and Brooks, Game Management.

16. Worster, Nature’s Economy, 274–279, 288–290.

17. O. Murie, “Memorandum for Mr. Redington,” 1–3.

18. Ibid., 3–5.

19. Worster, Nature’s Economy, 279–285, 288–290.

20. L. Palmer, Caribou Versus Fire, 6–7, 32–33.

21. Leopold and Darling, Wildlife in Alaska, 53–60, 93–95; Leopold and Darling, “Effects of Land Use,” 555–558.

22. Rawson, “Alaska’s First Wolf Controversy,” 3, 35–36, 59–60, 73, 93, 120, 128, 131–135, 139–140, 149 (quotation).

23. Brown, History of Denali–Mount McKinley, 122–125.

24. Alaska Game Commission, Report of Executive Officer, 1935–36, 62–63.

25. Rawson, “Alaska’s First Wolf Controversy,” 107, 115–117, 126, 137, 143–144.

26. Dunlap, Saving America’s Wildlife, 74–76; A. Murie, Wolves of Mt. McKinley, 230–231; Trefethen, Crusade for Wildlife, 300.

27. Rawson, “Alaska’s First Wolf Controversy,” 179–189.

28. U.S. Congress, House Comm. on Public Lands, Hearings: HR 5004 and 5401, 1–5.

29. Ibid., 11–12.

30. Ibid., 18, 22, 32–33, 37.

31. Browne, Analysis by Belmore Browne, 11, 20–21, 29.

32. Rawson, “Alaska’s First Wolf Controversy,” 207–211, 216–217, 220–221, 225, 342–243.

33. Ibid., 245, 249–251; Crisler, Arctic Wild.

34. Dunlap, “Values for Varmints,” 160–161.

35. Annual Report of Alaska Game Commission, 1956–57, 32.

36. Glaser, “My Lady Judas,” 44.

37. Dufresne, Alaska’s Animals and Fishes, 80.

38. Rhode, Alaska’s Fish and Wildlife, 33–34.

39. Annabel, Hunting and Fishing in Alaska, 147–149.

40. Gabrielson, “Report on 1946 Observation,” 7–8.

41. Annabel, Hunting and Fishing in Alaska, 149–150.

42. Ibid., 133, 153–154 (quotation).

43. Annual Report of Alaska Game Commission, 1948–49 and 1949–50, 16.

44. Green, “Predator Control Problems,” 7, 9–11.

45. Grummett, Territorial Sportsmen, 23.

46. Annual Report of Alaska Game Commission, 1952–53, 16. Sporting groups supporting the predator control program included Ketchikan Wildlife Club; Anchorage, Cordova, and Petersburg chapters of Isaac Walton League; Territorial Sportsmen of Juneau; and Tanana Valley Sportsmen’s Association.

47. Annual Report of Alaska Game Commission, 1956–57, 32.

48. Annual Report of Alaska Game Commission, 1951–52, 15–17; 1954–56, 47–48; O’Connor, Quarterly Report, 6.

49. Alaska Game Commission, Annual Report, 1947–48, 11; Calvin R. Lensink, interview by author, July 28, 1989.

50. Fowler, “Wolf Hunt,” 18, 40–41.

51. Annual Report of Alaska Game Commission, 1951–52, 16.

52. Calvin R. Lensink, interview by author, July 28, 1989.

53. Hammond, “Strafing Arctic Killers,” 38.

54. Annual Report of Alaska Game Commission, 1951–52, 15; Hammond, “Strafing Arctic Killers,” 112. The seven agents: Bob Burkholder, Doyle Cisney, Frank Glaser, Jay Hammond, Buck Harris, Maurice Kelly, and Joe Miner.

55. Rearden, Alaska’s Wolf Man, 306–308.

56. Annual Report of Alaska Game Commission, 1957–58, 34.

57. Calvin R. Lensink, interview by author, July 28, 1989.

58. Hammond, “Strafing Arctic Killers,” 120.

59. Annual Report of Alaska Game Commission, 1956–57, 30.

60. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game, Annual Report for 1957, 53–54.

61. Alaska Game Commission, Report of Wolf and Coyote Bounty Payments, 1940, 12ff; Annual Report of Alaska Game Commission, 1956–57, 32.

62. Annual Report of Alaska Game Commission, 1957–58, 33.

63. Ibid., 1956–57, 29.

64. Ibid., 1954–56, 49; 1956–57, 29; 1957–58, 33; Laycock, “Alaska’s Wildlife,” 81.

65. Chatelain, “Bear-Moose Relationships,” 224–226, 231; Alaska, “Alaska Sportsman,” 58.

66. Annual Report of Alaska Game Commission, 1953–54, 15–16; 1958–59, 42.

67. Ibid., 1957–58, 35; 1958–59, 38–39.

68. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Alaska District, Branch of Predator Control, Annual Report, FY 1960, 2–3; 1962–64, 1–8.

69. E. Jones, Report of Alaska Investigations in 1914, 48.

70. Ibid., 52, 54, 112.

71. Morton, “The Dolly Varden Is Innocent,” 14–15, 62–63; P. Roppel, Alaska’s Salmon Hatcheries, 68.

72. McKnight, History of Predator Control, 4.

73. Troyer, Status of Brown Bear, 4–5.

74. Imler and Sarber, Harbor Seals and Sea Lions in Alaska, 13–14.

75. Ibid., 13–15, 19.

76. Thorsteinson, Nelson, and Lall, Experimental Harvest of Sea Lion, 1–2, 14.

77. Imler and Sarber, Harbor Seals and Sea Lions in Alaska, 1, 3–5.

78. Lensink, “Predator Control,” 91–94.

79. Alaska Dept. of Fisheries, Annual Report for 1951, 44–45. Cooperating groups in 1951 included Copper River Co-op Cannery, Cordova District Fisheries Union, Cordova Fish and Cold Storage, New England Fish Company, Parks-Western Fisheries, and Whiz Halferty Company.

80. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game, Annual Report for 1958, 92–93, 95, 103.

81. McKnight, History of Predator Control, 7.

82. Alaska Dept. of Fisheries, Annual Report for 1954, 51–53; 1955, 100–101, 106; 1956, 52, 58; Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game, Annual Report for 1957, 53.

83. McKnight, History of Predator Control, 7.

84. E. Bailey, Introduction of Foxes, 4–5, 8–12, 17, 22.

85. Ibid., 9–12.

86. L. Black, Atkha, 157.

87. E. Bailey, Introduction of Foxes, 31–38; Croll et al., “Introduced Predators,” 1959–1961.

88. Kenton Wohl, interview by author, July 27, 1989.

89. E. Bailey, Introduction of Foxes, 16–17, 29–31.

90. O. Murie, Fauna of the Aleutian Islands, 296–297, 302–303.

91. Kohlhoff, When the Wind Was a River, 23.

92. E. Bailey, Introduction of Foxes, 39–44.

93. Kenyon, “Birds of Amchitka,” 307–309.

94. Scheffer, Adventures of a Zoologist, 22, 112.

95. E. Bailey, Introduction of Foxes, 41–43; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge, 54.

96. Kenton Wohl, interview by author, July 27, 1989; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge, 56. Cattle were removed from Caton, Simeonof, and Chernabura islands and remained on private lands of four other islands.

97. Kenton Wohl, interview by author, July 27, 1989.

98. Scheffer, Fiscus, and Todd, History of Scientific Study, 20.

99. Osgood, Preble, and Parker, “Fur Seals and Other Life,” 128–131.

100. R. Jones and Byrd, “Interrelations Between Seabirds and Introduced Animals,” 221–224.

101. Annual Report of Alaska Game Commission, 1958–59, 41.

102. R. Jones and Byrd, “Interrelations Between Seabirds and Introduced Animals,” 222.

103. Annual Report of Governor on Alaska Game Law, 1915, 5; 1918, 3; 1920, 4, 13.

104. A. Bailey, Notes on Game Conditions, 5, 16, 27.

105. T. Pearson, “Eagles and the Alaskan Bounty,” 86–89.

106. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish And Wildlife Service, Bald Eagle, 20–21.

107. L. Burch, “Eagle-Shooting in Alaska,” 14.

108. Ibid., 14–15.

109. Meine, Aldo Leopold, 360–361.

110. Sweazey, “In the Tallest Trees,” 18.

111. Perkins, “Bounty Hunter,” 11.

112. Burg, “Alaska’s Bald Eagles,” 11; Sherwood, Big Game in Alaska, 92–93; U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Bald Eagle, 19–20; 54 Stat. 250, June 8, 1940; 73 Stat. 143, June 25, 1959.

CHAPTER 14: GAME AND FUR MAMMALS

1. Skoog, “Ecology of the Caribou,” 245–246, 251.

2. Bockstoce, Steam Whaling, 42–43.

3. O. Murie, Alaska-Yukon Caribou, 60.

4. Osgood, Biological Reconnaissance, 28–29.

5. Klein, “Caribou: Alaska’s Wilderness Nomads,” 201.

6. O. Murie, Alaska-Yukon Caribou, 6. Murie’s method, visual observation from the ground, was primitive and his count probably high.

7. Scott, Chatelain, and Elkins, “Status of Dall Sheep and Caribou,” 613, 621–623.

8. Annual Report of Alaska Game Commission, 1952–53, 16; 1958–59, 15–17. Skoog, “Historical Resume—Reindeer,” asserted that reindeer characteristics (squatness, short legs, and white coloration) probably reflected recessive genes and would not long survive in a wild population. Two decades after reindeer joined the Alaska Peninsula caribou herd, Skoog noted, no sign of their presence remained.

9. Leopold and Darling, “Effects of Land Use,” 553–562.

10. Skoog, “Ecology of the Caribou,” 304.

11. Leopold and Darling, Wildlife in Alaska, 82–90; Leopold and Darling, “Effects of Land Use,” 553–556.

12. James G. King, interview by author, July 13, 1989.

13. Annual Report of Governor to Secretary of Interior, 1946, 30; Leopold and Darling, Wildlife in Alaska, 104.

14. Klein, “Reconnaissance Study of Mountain Goat,” ix, 1, 5–6, 100.

15. Annual Report of Alaska Game Commission, 1958–59, 20–21; Klein, Black-Tailed Deer.

16. S. Jackson, Introduction of Reindeer, 1890, 4–9, 13.

17. S. Jackson, Report on Introduction of Reindeer, 1893, 6, 9–10, 14–15.

18. Ibid., 1894, 10–16.

19. Ibid., 16–18.

20. R.L. Stewart, Sheldon Jackson, 400–402.

21. Stern et al., Eskimos, Reindeer and Land, 26–28; U.S. Revenue Cutter Service, Report of Cruise of Bear and Overland Expedition, 143–144.

22. Ray, Ethnohistory in the Arctic, 126–129.

23. Stern et al., Eskimos, Reindeer and Land, 26–28.

24. Lazell, Alaskan Apostle, 195.

25. Stern et al., Eskimos, Reindeer and Land, 29–44.

26. Hadwen and Palmer, Reindeer in Alaska, 3, 69.

27. Greeley, Handbook of Alaska, 165.

28. Lantis, “Reindeer Industry,” 37n18.

29. Stern et al., Eskimos, Reindeer and Land, 47, 49–52.

30. Lantis, “Reindeer Industry,” 30–34.

31. Ibid., 34–35.

32. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Survey of Alaska Reindeer Service.

33. Stern et al., Eskimos, Reindeer and Land, 59, 62, 66–67, 70–72.

34. Lantis, “Reindeer Industry,” 35–38.

35. O. Miller, Frontier in Alaska and Matanuska Colony, 192.

36. Stern et al., Eskimos, Reindeer and Land, 73–80, 92–93, 101.

37. Little, Evaluation of Feasibility of Native Industry, 4–5.

38. Gruening, State of Alaska, 359.

39. A. Murie, A Naturalist in Alaska, 1–2; L. Palmer and Rouse, Study of Alaskan Tundra, 1, 46–48.

40. Klein, St. Matthew Island, iii, 2, 30; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge Conservation Plan, 56.

41. Stern et al., Eskimos, Reindeer and Land, 95–96.

42. Porsild, “Reindeer Journey,” 1–5, 12.

43. Scotter, “Reindeer Industry,” 57–60. Accounts of the trek vary as to numbers of reindeer and other details.

44. Porsild, “Reindeer Journey,” 12–15.

45. Drury, “Natural History of Musk Ox,” 27–34.

46. Stefansson, Northward Course of Empire, 140; Bergman, “Brave Return,” 71–72.

47. Hone, Present Status of Muskox, 7; Hornaday, “Musk Ox in Alaska,” 754; J. Allen, “Probable Recent Occurrence of the Musk-Ox,” 720. There is some inconsistency among the reports. That attributed to Brower appears the most accurate except for identifying the site as southeast of Barrow rather than Wainwright.

48. McKennan, Chandalar Kutchin, 18; Bodfish, Chasing the Bowhead, 186.

49. J. Allen, “Musk-Oxen of Arctic America,” 84–86.

50. Bales, “Habits and Habitat,” 3.

51. Annual Report of Governor on Alaska Game Law, 1918, 6–7.

52. Bergman, “Brave Return,” 72; Trefethen, Crusade for Wildlife, 223; Report of Governor to Secretary of Interior, 1919, 60; Burris and McKnight, Game Transplants, 12.

53. Lent, “Musk-Ox,” 144, 147; J. Brooks, North to Wolf Country, 302–303.

54. Wilkinson, “Oomingmak,” 24–25.

55. Burris and McKnight, Game Transplants, 6–29; Franzmann, Review of Alaskan Translocations; Courtright, Alaska Big Game Harvest Data.

56. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game, American Bison, 3–9.

57. K. Nelson, Daughter of the Gold Rush, 138.

58. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game, American Bison, 3–5.

59. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game, Reintroducing Wood Bison, 1–5; Stephenson et al., “Wood Bison,” 129–137.

60. Elkins and Nelson, “Wildlife Introductions,” 2–3, 14.

61. O. Murie, “Wildlife Introductions,” 434–436.

62. Schneider, “Trapping Furbearers,” 4–5.

63. Ibid., 6–10.

64. L. Black, Russians in Alaska, 266.

65. Ibid., 65, 69; Golovin, End of Russian America, 80.

66. Applegate, Report on Population, 1890, 207–214.

67. M. Webb, Last Frontier, 295, 302.

68. Lutz, Ecological Effects of Forest Fires, 80–81.

69. Schneider, “Trapping Furbearers,” 11–17.

70. Dice, “Interior Alaska in 1911 and 1912,” 69.

71. Thomas, Trails and Tramps, 58–59.

72. M. Webb, Last Frontier, 295–296.

73. D. Mitchell, Sold American, 276–277.

74. E. Jones, Report of Alaska Investigations in 1914, 116–117; Huston, “Geographical Analysis of Fur Farming Industry,” 19, 87–89, 95–100.

75. D. Mitchell, Sold American, 227–229.

76. M. Webb, Last Frontier, 300–304.

77. Anderson, Trapping in Alaska and the European Economic Community, 12, 14, 24–25.

78. Popular Mechanics, “Man’s Law on the Yukon,” 292.

79. Ford and MacBain, “Hot Fur,” 29.

80. Annabel, “Trouble in Alaska’s Game Lands,” 48.

81. M. Webb, Last Frontier, 300.

82. Buckley, Wildlife in the Economy of Alaska, 32–33.

83. Sumner, “Your Stake in Alaska’s Wildlife,” 57, 67.

84. Ibid., 60–62, 70.

85. Ibid., 68.

CHAPTER 15: JOURNEY OF THE SALMON

1. P. Roppel, Alaska’s Salmon Hatcheries, 3.

2. Cooley, Politics and Conservation, 4–8.

3. P. Roppel, Salmon From Kodiak, 1–4; S. Evans, Historical View, 265–266, 271.

4. P. Roppel, Salmon From Kodiak, 15, 63, 73; Moser, Salmon and Salmon Fisheries of Alaska, 22.

5. Netboy, The Salmon, 408–409; Ted Merrell, pers. com., April 20, 2002.

6. Cane, “Salmon Fishery,” 107–108.

7. P. Roppel, Salmon From Kodiak, 25, 31, 36; Pacific Fisherman, 1944 Yearbook, “Pack of Canned Salmon in Alaska, by District and Species—1884 to 1943.”

8. Gill, “Six Months in a Salmon Ship,” 310.

9. Ibid., 309, 312, 314.

10. Cooley, Politics and Conservation, 27.

11. P. Roppel, Salmon From Kodiak, 39, 45–46; 25 Stat. 1009, March 2, 1889.

12. Bean, Report on Salmon and Salmon Rivers, 5.

13. Hinckley, “Alaska and the Emergence,” 97, 99.

14. Grinnell, “Salmon Industry,” 343, 350–351; P. Roppel, Salmon From Kodiak, 33.

15. Scudder, Alaska Salmon Trap, 15; P. Roppel, Alaska’s Salmon Hatcheries, 6, 26; Gruening, State of Alaska, 248–249; 29 Stat. 316, June 9, 1896; Brady quoted in Hinckley, “Alaska and the Emergence,” 98–99.

16. Scudder, Alaska Salmon Trap, 16.

17. P. Roppel, Salmon From Kodiak, 45–46, 52–53.

18. Kurtz, Glacier Bay: Historic Resources Study, 45.

19. Royce, “Alaskan Salmon Management,” 21.

20. Augerot, “Environmental History of Salmon Management,” 220–221.

21. Hinckley, “Alaska and the Emergence,” 97–98.

22. Ibid., 98–99.

23. Moser, Salmon and Salmon Fisheries of Alaska, 22–23.

24. Ibid., 43–44.

25. S. Evans, Historical View, 264–265, 338.

26. Tingle, Report on the Salmon Fisheries, 1896, 19.

27. Netboy, The Salmon, 417.

28. P. Roppel, Salmon From Kodiak, 87–89.

29. D. Mitchell, Sold American, 278–279; Moser, Salmon and Salmon Fisheries of Alaska, 66.

30. Augerot, “Environmental History of Salmon Management,” 222–224; Tlingit and Haida Indians v. U.S., 177 F. Supp. 452 (Court of Claims, 1959); 85 Stat. 688, December 18, 1971; 94 Stat. 2371, December 2, 1980. The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971 abolished all reservations in Alaska except Metlakatla and conveyed title of the former Venetie reservation to the local Gwitch’in corporations, which transferred it to the Village of Venetie. See Alaska v. Native Village of Venetie Tribal Government (96–177), 101 F. 3rd 1286 reversed, February 25, 1998.

31. Scudder, Alaska Salmon Trap, 21–22.

32. D. Mitchell, Sold American, 105–108.

33. Moser, Salmon and Salmon Fisheries of Alaska, 22, 25, 66.

34. D. Mitchell, Sold American, 106–107.

35. Hinckley, Americanization of Alaska, 127–128.

36. P. Roppel, Salmon From Kodiak, 29.

37. Catton, Land Reborn, 24–25, 104–108, 112–113.

38. P. Roppel, Alaska’s Salmon Hatcheries, 3–6; Pat Roppel, pers. com., April 24, 2002.

39. Hunt, History of Marine Hatcheries, 3–5, 16–17.

40. Augerot, “Environmental History of Salmon Management,” 105–109.

41. P. Roppel, Alaska’s Salmon Hatcheries, 3–4, 13–14; Pat Roppel, pers. com., April 24, 2002.

42. Hunt, History of Marine Hatcheries, 13–18.

43. P. Roppel, Alaska’s Salmon Hatcheries, 30.

44. Ibid., 21–23, 265–275.

45. Augerot, “Environmental History of Salmon Management,” 111–112; Taylor, “Well-Thinking Men and Women,” 361–369, 377, 382–387.

46. Crutchfield and Pontecorvo, Pacific Salmon Fisheries, 96–97; Naske and Slotnick, Alaska: A History, 98–99; P. Roppel, Salmon From Kodiak, 54–56, 72; 43 Stat. 464, June 6, 1924.

47. Gruening, State of Alaska. 268.

48. Gregory and Barnes, North Pacific Fisheries, 49–51.

49. S.E. White, “Kidding Ourselves Along,” 17, 173.

50. Bower, Alaska Fishery, 1925, 86–89.

51. Koughan, “Account of Alaska Salmon Industry,” 92–93; ibid., 1935, 8–11.

52. Bower, Alaska Fishery, 1945, 5–7; Thompson, Alaska Fishery, 1955, 12–14.

53. Whitehead, “The Governor,” 364–366; Gruening, State of Alaska, 152, 192–198, 233; 37 Stat. 512, August 24, 1912.

54. Gruening, State of Alaska, 382–392.

55. S. Evans, Historical View, 307, 324.

56. Gregory and Barnes, North Pacific Fisheries, 84–85, 99–100.

57. Fitzgerald, “Days of the Seafaring Canners,” 10–11.

58. Gregory and Barnes, North Pacific Fisheries, 86–87, 97, 102, 105–108.

59. Scudder, Alaska Salmon Trap, 1–6, 8–10, 16.

60. Gruening, State of Alaska, 170–171, 524n31.

61. Rogers, Alaska in Transition, 7–14; Rearden, “Alaska’s Commercial Salmon Fisheries,” 20; Naske and Slotnick, Alaska: A History, 169.

62. Cooley, Politics and Conservation, 36, 43, 49–50; Rogers, Alaska in Transition, 106.

63. S. Evans, Historical View, 336–337.

64. Cooley, Politics and Conservation, 155–161, 157 (quotation), 177–181.

65. Gruening, State of Alaska, 404.

66. Scudder, Alaska Salmon Trap, 23.

67. Gruening, State of Alaska, 406–407.

68. Haycox, Frigid Embrace, 3–18, 27–35, 48–51.

69. Committee for Protection of North Pacific Fisheries, Japan’s High Seas Salmon Fishery, 3.

70. Leonard, “Alaskan Salmon Controversy,” 40–43.

71. Ibid., 43–46.

72. Pasley, “Salmon Battle,” 146–147.

73. Leonard, “Alaskan Salmon Controversy,” 46–47, 50–55.

74. Augerot, “Environmental History of Salmon Management,” 248, 324.

75. Committee for the Protection of North Pacific Fisheries, Japan’s High Seas Salmon Fishery, 4–8, 11–12, 15, 19–20.

76. U.S. Senate, Committee on Commerce, International North Pacific Fisheries Convention, 10–11.

77. Augerot, “Environmental History of Salmon Management,” 9–10, 256–259.

78. Crutchfield and Pontecorvo, Pacific Salmon Fisheries, 85, 87–88.

79. Stansby, Federal Fishery Research, 1–4, 10–15.

80. Augerot, “Environmental History of Salmon Management,” 300–302.

81. Royce, “Alaskan Salmon Management,” 18, 20, 23.

82. DeArmond, “Page and Line Comments on ‘History of Alaskan Fisheries’ by Sheila Evans,” 1–3, appended to S. Evans, Historical View.

83. Ibid., 6.

84. Crutchfield and Pontecorvo, Pacific Salmon Fisheries, 58.

85. Royce, “Alaskan Salmon Management,” 25, 27, 29.

86. Augerot, “Environmental History of Salmon Management,” 117–119.

87. Mantua et al., “Pacific Interdecadal Climate Oscillation,” 1072–1078.

88. Beamish et al., “The Regime Concept,” 521–524.

89. D. Barry, “Salmon Industry’s Changing Currents,” 60–63.

90. N. Williams, “Temperature Rise Could Squeeze Salmon,” 1349.

CHAPTER 16: GOLD AND OIL ON THE KENAI

1. Simmerman, Alaska’s Parklands, 180.

2. Bennett, Report on Reconnaissance, 43–45.

3. Fedorova, Russian Population, 115–122, 128.

4. M. Barry, History of Mining, 159–160.

5. Ibid., 6, 13–15; Fedorova, Russian Population, 195.

6. M. Barry, History of Mining, 19; Bennett, Report on Reconnaissance, 44–45.

7. M. Barry, History of Mining, 6, 47–50, 103, 107; Bennett, Report on Reconnaissance, 44. The date of the first Russian gold discovery is commonly cited (e.g., Fedorova) as 1850 or 1851.

8. Wilson, Railroad in the Clouds, 3, 6–7; Bennett, Report on Reconnaissance, 45.

9. Penick, Progressive Politics, 78–83. Kennecott Copper Company and the Kennecott mines derived their names from Western Union expedition leader Robert Kennicott; the company changed the spelling for taxation reasons. The town and glacier retained the original spelling. (Sally Gilbert, secy., Friends of Kennicott, letter to author, August 1, 1991.)

10. Penick, Progressive Politics, 5–18.

11. Ibid., 79–86.

12. Ibid., 20–21, 24, 26.

13. Ibid., 85–89, 94–101.

14. Richardson, Politics of Conservation, 66–69.

15. Glavis, “Whitewashing Ballinger,” 15–17, 27.

16. Penick, Progressive Politics, 13–14, 27–29, 38–39, 101.

17. Richardson, Politics of Conservation, 67–79.

18. Penick, Progressive Politics, 144, 157–162, 173.

19. Ibid., 172, 175, 192–196; Haycox, Alaska: An American Colony, 228.

20. Slotnick, “Ballinger-Pinchot,” 340–344.

21. Tompkins, Alaska: Promyshlennik and Sourdough, 268–271.

22. Wilson, Railroad in the Clouds, 6–7, 17, 23–26.

23. Gruening, State of Alaska, 177–181, 188.

24. Wilson, Railroad in the Clouds, 28–30, 85; 38 Stat. 305, March 12, 1914.

25. D. Mitchell, Sold American, 171, 178.

26. Bennett, Report on Reconnaissance, 42.

27. Osgood, Natural History of Queen Charlotte Islands, 67; Peterson and Woolington, “Apparent Extirpation,” 337–341.

28. Stone quoted in J. Allen, “Description of a New Caribou,” 148; Lutz, History of Early Occurrence of Moose, 2. Lutz refuted the popular theories that moose had only recently arrived on the Kenai and that fire as opposed to hunting was the prime cause of the caribou removal.

29. Cane, Summer and Fall, 171.

30. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Regulations for Protection of Game in Alaska, 1904, 3.

31. Peterson and Woolington, “Apparent Extirpation,” 339.

32. Scull, Hunting in the Arctic, 210.

33. Annual Report of Governor on Alaska Game Law, 1915, 4.

34. Shiras, “White Sheep,” 494.

35. Annual Report of Governor on Alaska Game Law, 1912, 6; 1916, 3.

36. Ibid., 1915, 4–5; Bennett, Report on Reconnaissance, 118–121.

37. U.S. House Committee on Agriculture, Hearings: Alaska Game Act, 12–14.

38. Chatelain, “Bear-Moose Relationships,” 225.

39. Eddy, Hunting on Kenai Peninsula, 44–45.

40. Chatelain, “Bear-Moose Relationships,” 225, 232–233; D. Spencer and Chatelain, “Progress in Management of Moose,” 539–540, 550.

41. Naske, “Kenai National Moose Range,” 121–132; President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Executive Order Nos. 8978–8979, December 16, 1941.

42. Moffitt, “Petroleum on West Shore,” 135–137.

43. Davis, Energy/Alaska, 198–201.

44. Postman, “Oil Industry Built Close Ties With President Eisenhower,” Anchorage Daily News, February 5, 1990, 1, 5.

45. Postman, “City Leaders Struck a Deal for Oil,” Anchorage Daily News, February 4, 1990, 9.

46. Ibid., 9–10.

47. Roderick, Crude Dreams, 73–77. Coincidence of the Wester negotiations and leasing by Jacobs, and the deals between Richfield and the Anchorage group, suggested collusion, which would violate federal law. Postman (“City Leaders,” 10–11) concluded that Richfield needed the group’s political backing to get preferential access to oil leasing on the Kenai. According to Roderick (76–77), Jacobs denied any such collusion and pointed out that only one member of the business group had agreed to the January leases. In a 1990 interview, Robert Atwood acknowledged that his group of fourteen had acted as leaseholders for Arco but claimed they had no prior ties to the company and only wanted someone to drill a well to advance economic development in Alaska. Of the oil companies they approached, only Arco showed interest. Arco insisted on paying some of the group’s leasing expenses, amounting to about half. When Arco eventually struck oil on the group’s leased lands, it paid them royalties. Atwood denied ever having heard the name “Spit and Argue Club.” (See Neiswonger, “Robert Atwood,” 43–45.) Postman (10–11) quoted former Arco geologist Ray Arnett as saying that Arco sought out the leaseholders to supplement its leased lands, and “[w]e were asking them to go in there and lease that land. . . . We kind of gathered those people together.” Arnett stated that Jacobs had acted for Richfield: “We got Locke started. I wanted somebody who could follow the lease activity in Alaska. . . . We paid him a certain amount of money and Locke was capable of doing the job.”

48. Postman, “City Leaders Struck a Deal,” 9–10; Roderick, Crude Dreams, 62–65.

49. Postman, “BLM Aided Chosen Few,” Anchorage Daily News, February 5, 1990, 1, 4–5.

50. Postman, “Territorial Delegate Aided Oil Company, Businessmen,” Anchorage Daily News, February 6, 1990, 1, 9.

51. Hanley, Hemming, and Morsell, Natural Resource Protection, 168.

52. Roderick, Crude Dreams, 78.

53. Postman, “New Interior Secretary Accelerated Oil Development on Moose Range,” Anchorage Daily News, February 7, 1990, 1, 9–10.

54. Anchorage Chamber of Commerce, Alaska’s 1957 Oil Discovery, 12–13, 15, Exhibits K, M.

55. Poole, “Stand Firm, Mr. Secretary,” 4, 71.

56. Postman, “Gruening Took up the Cause of Oil,” Anchorage Daily News, February 8, 1990, 9.

57. Postman, “New Interior Secretary Accelerated Oil Development,” 10.

58. Postman, “A Nasty Schism,” Anchorage Daily News, February 8, 1990, 8–9.

59. Postman, “Potential Oil Lease Scandal Worried Interior Secretary,” Anchorage Daily News, February 9, 1990, 12–13.

60. Postman, “Oil Interests United Opponents, Proponents on Statehood Issue,” Anchorage Daily News, February 10, 1990, 1, 12.

61. Postman, “Challenge to Spit and Argue Club Leases Fails After 6-Year Fight,” Anchorage Daily News, February 11, 1990, 1, 8–9; Hanley, Hemming, and Morsell, Natural Resource Protection, 178–179.

62. Hanley, Hemming, and Morsell, Natural Resource Protection, 179; Postman, “Challenge to Spit and Argue Club,” 1, 8–9; Postman, “Epilogue: Upshot of an Oil Lease Deal,” Anchorage Daily News, February 11, 1990, 8; Alaska Conservation Society News Bulletin, October 1964, 3.

63. State of Alaska, Session Laws, 1965, SJR3.

64. 94 Stat. 2379 Sec. 201(5); 94 Stat. 2391 Sec. 303(4); 94 Stat. 2418 Sec. 702(7), December 2, 1980.

65. Peterson and Woolington, “Apparent Extirpation,” 340–341.

66. Postman, “Epilogue,” 8.

67. Hanley, Hemming, and Morsell, Natural Resource Protection, 179–180.

68. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Kenai National Wildlife Refuge, 10.

69. Postman, “Epilogue,” 8.

70. Borneman, Alaska, 408, 412.

CHAPTER 17: BOB MARSHALL, OLAUS AND MARGARET MURIE, AND THE ARCTIC REFUGE

1. Fox, John Muir and His Legacy, 206–209; R. Marshall, Arctic Wilderness, xiv–xv, 1–3; Vickery, “Bob Marshall,” 59–60; Vickery, Wilderness Visionaries, 130–133, 141; Clepper, Leaders in American Conservation, 219–220. See also R. Marshall, Arctic Village.

2. Glover, “Romance, Recreation, and Wilderness,” 24–31.

3. R. Marshall, “The Problem of the Wilderness,” 142–145.

4. R. Marshall, “The Universe of the Wilderness Is Vanishing,” 11.

5. R. Marshall, People’s Forests, 209–210.

6. Ibid., 217.

7. Glover, “Romance, Recreation, and Wilderness,” 30–31; Nash, “Strenuous Life,” 23–24.

8. Glover, Wilderness Original, 209–211; R. Marshall, “Ecology and the Indians,” 159–161.

9. Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 204–206; Allin, Politics of Wilderness, 80–85; Nash, “Strenuous Life,” 24.

10. R. Marshall, Alaska Wilderness, 74; Vickery, Wilderness Visionaries, 154.

11. Quoted in Glover, Wilderness Original, 137.

12. Nash, “Tourism,” 15–17; Orth, Dictionary of Alaska Place Names, 624.

13. R. Marshall, “Adventure, Arrogance and the Arctic,” 25.

14. R. Marshall, Arctic Wilderness, xx; Cameron, Marshall, and Gordon, “Recreational Resources,” 127–129, 137–138.

15. Catton, Inhabited Wilderness, 134–143.

16. R. Marshall, “Should We Settle Alaska?” 50.

17. Ibid., 49–50; O. Miller, Frontier in Alaska, 164–175.

18. R. Marshall, “The Problem of the Wilderness,” 148.

19. Murie quoted in Scheffer, “Exploring With Olaus Murie,” 15.

20. Weddle, “Wilderness Champion,” 228; Living Wilderness, “1889–Olaus J. Murie–1963,” 6–7; Curry, “Portrait,” 16; Glover and Glover, “Natural Magic,” 69–71; Orth, Dictionary of Alaska Place Names, 666; Margaret Murie, letter to author, June 26, 1990; Sterling, Biographical Dictionary of American and Canadian Naturalists and Environmentalists, 566–567.

21. Glover, “Sweet Days of a Naturalist,” 132–135.

22. Ibid., 133–138.

23. D. Spencer, “Aleutian Islands National Wildlife Refuge,” 50.

24. Quoted in Glover, “Sweet Days of a Naturalist,” 135–136.

25. Wild, “Science and Sympathy”; O. Murie, “Wolf,” 220–221; Fox, John Muir and His Legacy, 267–268. David L. Spencer (“Aleutian Islands National Wildlife Refuge,” 59) stated that military activities caused the Unimak dieoff.

26. O. Murie, Journeys to the Far North, 245.

27. Quoted in Curry, “Portrait,” 18–20.

28. Living Wilderness, “1899–Olaus J. Murie–1963,” 3.

29. O. Murie, “Beauty and the Dollar Sign,” 22.

30. O. Murie, “Wolf,” 221.

31. Quoted in Curry, “Portrait,” 16.

32. O. Murie, “God Bless America,” 9.

33. O. Murie, “Wilderness Philosophy,” 64, 67.

34. Murie quoted in Scheffer, “Exploring With Olaus Murie,” 10, 15; Clepper, Leaders in American Conservation, 233–234.

35. Alaska, Obituary of Olaus J. Murie, 45; M. and O. Murie, Wapiti Wilderness, 303.

36. O. Murie, “Wild Country,” 12.

37. O. Murie, “Beauty and the Dollar Sign,” 27.

38. M. Murie, Two in the Far North, 229–258.

39. Graham, “Mardy Murie,” 122, 127.

40. Breton, Women Pioneers, 260–263.

41. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Arctic National Wildlife Refuge Conservation Plan, 127–128; Chance, The Eskimo of North Alaska, 10–12.

42. Orth, Dictionary of Alaska Place Names, 117, 176.

43. Collins and Sumner, “Northeast Arctic,” 20; Leffingwell, Canning River Region, 62–63.

44. Amundsen, My Life as an Explorer, 52–54; Underwood, Alaska: An Empire, 425–427.

45. Kilian, Voyage of the Schooner Polar Bear, vi–vii.

46. Amundsen, The North West Passage, 180, 215–218, 224, 229–230, 241, 246.

47. Thayer, “The ANWR,” 1.

48. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Arctic National Wildlife Refuge: Coastal Plain, chaps. 4–6; Simmerman, Alaska’s Parklands, 93.

49. D.S. Miller, Midnight Wilderness, 12.

50. D. Jackson, “Floor of Creation,” 16.

51. Crisler, Arctic Wild, 136.

52. Milton, Nameless Valleys, Shining Mountains, 105–106.

53. Naske, “Creation of Arctic National Wildlife Range,” 101.

54. Collins, Art and Politics of Park Planning, 189–194.

55. Naske, “Creation of Arctic National Wildlife Range,” 104.

56. M. Murie, “Return to the Sheenjek,” 5.

57. Collins and Sumner, “Northeast Arctic,” 23, 25–26. The appeal reflected the ideas of Bob Marshall, whom Collins had known personally (Kaye, Last Great Wilderness, 15).

58. M. Murie, “Return to the Sheenjek,” 5; Nelson, Northern Landscapes, 45; Naske, “Creation of Arctic National Wildlife Range,” 103, 105. Dr. Brina Kessel of the University of Alaska, as well as Bob Krear and George Schaller, accompanied the Muries.

59. Wood, “From the Woodpile,” 11.

60. Naske, “Creation of Arctic National Wildlife Range,” 106–109; Kauffmann, Alaska’s Brooks Range, 102–103; Alaska State Session Laws, 1959, HJM 23.

61. O. Murie, “Nature in the Arctic,” 29–31.

62. Kauffmann, Alaska’s Brooks Range, 103; Seaton, “America’s Largest Wildlife Area,” 117, 119, 122, 144.

63. Findlay, “History and Status of Arctic National Wildlife Range,” 16; D. Nelson, Northern Landscapes, 48–49.

64. House Subcom. on Fisheries and Wildlife Conservation, Hearings, 139, 157, 164, 171–173, 177, 179.

65. Senate Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, Merchant Marine Subcom., Hearings, Part I, 57, 62–63, 66–69.

66. Rausch, “Outlook for Conservation,” 15–16.

67. Senate Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, Merchant Marine Subcom., Hearings, Part I, 335–337, 340, 344.

68. Alaska Conservation Society News Bulletin, March 1960, 3; May 1960, 10; August 1960, 1–4; November 1960, 3–4. Rivers explained that he met so much opposition he let the bill pass the House, assuming it would be easier to stop in the Senate (Kaye, Last Great Wilderness, 255n6).

69. Ibid., January 1961, 3–4; D. Nelson, Northern Landscapes, 52–53; D.S. Miller, Midnight Wilderness, 172, 180; President Dwight D. Eisenhower, Proclamation Nos. 1960–03–2213 to 2215, December 6, 1960.

70. James G. King, interview by author, February 14, 1988.

71. Wood, “From the Woodpile,” 11.

72. Findlay, “History and Status of Arctic National Wildlife Range,” 16–17.

73. Kaye, Last Great Wilderness, 213–214, 224.

74. Pruitt, “Animal Ecology,” 46; J. Campbell, “An Anthropologist,” 55–58; O. Murie, “Wilderness Philosophy,” 68; U. Nelson and Spencer, “Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife’s Position,” 71.

75. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Arctic National Wildlife Refuge: Draft River Management Plan, 1993, 5.

76. 94 Stat. 2390 Sec. 303(2), 94 Stat. 2449 Sec. 1002, December 2, 1980.

77. Braasch, “Coveted Slope,” 27, 40.