Index
Page numbers in italic indicate illustrations.
Abandonment: Bronze Age Mesopotamia, 178, 179; northern Mexico, 204; Supe Culture, 128–29
Aborigines, social complexity, 123–24
Abu Dibbis depression, 177
Acolman, 156
Adaptive cycle, in Mesopotamia, 181
Agave cultivation, 204–6
Agriculture, 24, 124, 239, 241; Basin of Mexico, 143, 149, 165; coastal Peru, 125–27; diversification of, 203–6, 213, 221; and floods, 176–77; Mesopotamia, 168, 173–76, 183, 186; salinization, 178–79; Teotihuacan, 151–52, 153–54; US Southwest, 206–10; and volcanic eruptions, 52–55
Akkadian state, 183
Álftaver, 73
Andean coast, 117, 118; and ENSO, 9–10, 119–20
Archaeology, 4–5, 58, 224; applied, 12–16; Caribbean Islands, 94–95; coastal Peru, 128–33; collation, 121–22; correlation and causation in, 122–23; and disaster management, 106, 107; Kuril Islands, 22–25, 28–30, 30–31; Mesopotamian, 171–73; scales of complexity, 123–24; secure information, 120–21
Architecture: earthquake-resistant, 59, 65; household, 9, 13–14, 101–2, 240; Mayan, 56; talud-tablero, 53; Teotihuacan, 153–54; urban, 10
Arenal area: social organization, 57, 229; vulnerability and resilience, 45–50, 52, 59
Arenal volcano, eruptions of, 45–46, 47, 64–65
Art, Maya Classic period, 56
Ascope Canal, 129
Askja, 73–74
Atmospheric phenomenon, AD536, 58
Authority, local nodes of, 16, 57
Avulsion, 177
Aztecs, 156
Babylon, 183–84
Bajareque architecture, 59, 65
Bárdarbunga volcano, 72
Barrilles culture, 8; and Baru eruption, 51–52, 57
Baru volcano, 8, 51, 51–52, 57
Belief systems, Caribbean, 100. See also Religion
Biodiversity, Kuril Islands, 21, 22
Biogeography, Kuril Islands, 20–22
Biomass, and Okhotsk Sea circulation, 32
Boinayel, 100
British Isles, volcanic pollution in, 75
Bronze Age: archaeology, 171–73; environmental hazards, 173–80, 195; in Mesopotamia, 168–71, 186, 187; resilience and institutional power in, 182–85
Buddhism, 58
Buena Vista, Bahia de, 104
Calakmul, 55
Calderas, Kuril Islands, 27, 28, 29
Canal systems; Hohokam, 208–9; Teotihuacan, 153
Caracol, 55
Caribbean islands, 9, 91, 93; archaeology of, 94–95; disaster management, 114–15; household architecture, 101–2; hurricanes, 98–100; precipitation changes in, 97–98; sea level rise, 95–97, 97; settlement locations, 13, 102–5
Carrying capacity, Teotihuacan, 153
Carthage, AD 536 phenomenon, 58
Cassiodorius, 58
Caves, as hurricane shelter, 104
Cemeteries, Arenal area, 52
Central America, 7, 13, 16, 240; earthquake-resistant architecture, 59, 65; volcanism, 44–45, 64, 229
Ceremonial centers, 54, 56; Teotihuacan, 151, 153–54
Ceren, and volcanic eruptions, 48–50
Ceren architecture, 13–14, 59, 65
Chato, Cerro, 46
Chichen Itza, 56
Chiefdoms, 225; Barriles, 51–52, 57
Chimu Empire, 130
China, 58
Cholula, 53
Chontal Maya, 55–56
Chronicle of Michael the Syrian, 173
City-states, Mesopotamian, 169
Ciudad Credisa, 48
Classic Maya, collapse of, 55–56
Classic period, Teotihuacan Valley, 155
Climate, 7, 69, 93, 94, 200; agave cultivation and, 205–6; irrigation systems and, 206–10; in Mesopotamia, 168, 176, 183
Climate change, 238, 241; and Bronze Age Mesopotamia, 172, 185; Caribbean, 95, 115; Kuril Islands, 32–33, 35; Teotihuacan, 10, 146, 154
Coatrisque, 100
Collation, 121–22; Supe Valley archaeology, 128–29
Colonization: Caribbean islands, 94; Iceland, 79
Columbus, Christopher, on hurricanes, 99
Complexity, scales of, 123–24
Constantinople, 58
Controlled breaching, 177
Cooperation, 228
Coordination, political, 228
Copan, 56
Costa Rica, volcanic eruptions in, 45–46, 64–65
Crops, diversification, 203–6
Cuba, 9, 91, 94; household architecture, 101–2; rising sea level, 96, 97; settlement locations in, 102–5
Cyclones, 9. See also Hurricanes
Daghara, salinization, 178–79
Deaths: from volcanic eruptions, 70–71, 75, 76; from winter weather, 176
Deforestation: Basin of Mexico, 143, 146; Iceland, 79; Maya region, 55, 56; Teotihuacan region, 10, 149–50, 239
Depopulation, Mesa Verde region, 230–31
Desertification, in Southern Mesopotamia, 177–78
Diamond, Jared, on response to environmental change, 241–42
Disasters, 2, 232; elite responsibility for, 8, 58; management of, 12, 15–16, 106, 107, 114–15, 240
Disaster studies, archaeological, 4–5, 106, 107
Diseases, El Niño and, 119, 127
Diversity, 1; subsistence, 213, 221
Drought, 4, 9, 55, 92, 154, 204, 230; Mesopotamia, 168, 173–75; Mimbres region, 207–8
Dura Europos, 169
Dust storms, and drought, 174
Early Bronze Age, 178; written record, 172–73
Early Dynastic branch, 178
Early Postclassic period, drought, 154
Earthquakes, 4; architecture built for, 59, 65; Basin of Mexico, 148–49; coastal Peru, 119, 127, 128; knowledge of, 44, 58; Kuril Islands, 30–31; and volcanic eruptions, 48, 50
Economies: Bronze Age Mesopotamia, 170–71; Iceland’s, 71; redistributive, 57
Ecosystem management, 240–41
Ekarma Island, 27
Eldfell volcano, 72
Eldgjá volcano, 68, 69, 71, 72, 78
El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO): Andean coast, 9–10, 119–20, 127–28, 140; food procurement strategies and, 124–25; frequency of, 130–33, 134
El Paraíso, 129
El Salvador, 16; Ceren architecture, 13–14, 59, 65; volcanic eruptions in, 47–50, 57
Emergencies, decision-making and response to, 46–47
Emergency planning, volcanic, 80–81
Engineering, hazard-disaster research, 3–4
England, epidemics in, 58
ENSO. See El Niño Southern Oscillation
Environment, 1, 201; coastal Peru, 140–41; Iceland, 79–80
Environmental change, 1–2, 7, 238, 243–44; Caribbean islands, 9, 92; and global climate systems, 93–94; response to, 241–42; and social-ecological systems, 198–200, 210–13, 237; and social evolution, 11–12; Teotihuacan Valley, 146, 149–51, 155–56
Environmental history, collations of, 121–22
Epidemics, 58
Epi-Jomon culture, 23, 24, 34, 35, 36
Erosion: Icelandic settlement and, 79–80; Teotihuacan Valley, 150–51, 152
Euphrates River, 169; channel shifts, 177–78; floods on, 176–77
Europe, epidemics in, 58
Eyjafjallajökull: eruption of, 81, 82; tephra from, 74, 83
Famines: Icelandic, 70–71, 75, 76; Mesopotamia, 174; northern Mexico, 204
Farms, Icelandic, 71, 73. See also Agriculture; Pastoralism
Fertilizers, in Northern Mesopotamia, 179
Festivals, seasonal, 15
Fisheries: coastal Peru, 126; Iceland, 71; Kuril Islands, 21, 25
Flooding, 3, 4, 14, 158, 239; Caribbean, 9, 92, 96, 103, 104; El Niño and, 119–20, 127, 128; Mesopotamia, 176–77; Teotihuacan region, 10, 151, 155; volcanogenic, 69, 72–73, 75–76, 81–82, 84
Fluorosis poisoning, 69, 74–75
Fog, Kuril Islands, 31
Folklore, 15
Food procurement strategies. See Subsistence
Formative period, volcanic eruptions, 53–54
Frambruni volcano, 72
Fur trade, Japan-Kuril, 34
Geopolitics, Kuril Islands, 24–25
Gjálp volcano, 72
Glaciers, volcanic eruptions and, 69, 72, 82, 83
Global Human Ecodynamics, 5
Greenland, Norse on, 242
Grímsvötn volcano, 72
Groundwater, and volcanic eruptions, 75
Groups, size and structure of, 226–28, 233(n2)
Guatemala, Ilopango eruption, 48
Habbaniyah depression, 177
Hallmundarhraun volcano, lava flows from, 72
Hazard-disaster research, 3–4, 43–44
Hazard management, 12, 15; Bronze Age Mesopotamia, 170–71, 173–80; volcanic, 80–81
Hazards, 3, 6, 42, 92, 106, 200, 201; Caribbean, 91, 95–100; coastal Peru, 126–33; Basin of Mexico, 148–49; Kuril Islands, 25–35, 42; Mesopotamia, 167, 170–71, 173–80, 195; social evolution and, 228–31; social response to, 8–9, 223–24; urban centers and, 10–11; volcanic, 69–76, 79–80, 83–84, 89, 238–39
Haze Famine, 76
Heimaey, 72
Hekla volcano, 71, 73; toxic fallout from, 74–75
Hilla branch, 178
Hindiyah branch, 178
Hispaniola, archaeology of, 94
Hof, 73
Hohokam, 201, 202, 230; irrigation systems, 206, 208–9; rigidity trap, 212–13; social isolation, 11, 214
Hokkaido, 27, 33; and Kuril Islands, 23, 34; Satsumon culture on, 23–24
Holguin, urban planning in, 103
Honshu, Hokkaido trade, 34
Hunter-gatherers, 71, 124, 227; Kuril Islands, 19, 23–24, 30; mobility of, 36–37
Hurricanes, 13, 57; Caribbean, 93, 98–100; settlement location and, 102–5
Hydraulic systems, Teotihuacan Valley, 153, 154–56, 165
Ice cores, volcanic ash dating, 77
Iceland, 13, 240; emergency planning, 80–81; Medieval, 8–9, 67–68; settlement of, 71, 79–80; volcanic hazards in, 69–76, 83–84, 89
Ike, Hurricane, damage from, 99
Ilopango volcano: eruptions of, 47–48; impacts of, 55, 229
Inca Empire, 130
Indian Ocean, tsunami, 14
Indonesia, 44
Inequality, 187–88
Information, secure, 120–21
Insect plagues: El Niño and, 119–20, 127; Mesopotamia, 180
Institutions: Mesopotamian urban, 169–70, 172–73, 181–85, 186–87; in middle-range societies, 202; rigidity of, 240
Intercontinental Convergence Zone, and Mexican drought, 154
Inuit, on Greenland, 242
Iraq, 167, 176, 180, 188(n3); salinization in, 178–79
Irrigation systems, 239; coastal Peru, 125, 126–27, 129; Mesopotamia, 168, 178–79; Teotihuacan Valley, 10, 153; US Southwest, 206–10, 221
Islam, development of, 58–59
Isolation, socioeconomic, 33–35, 214
Italy, AD 536 phenomenon, 58
Iturup Island, 25, 27; archaeology of, 22–23
Japan, and Kuril Islands, 24–25, 34, 35
Jasaw Chan K’awiil I, 56
Jökulhlaup, 72
Joya de Ceren architecture, 13–14, 59, 65
Kamchatka Peninsula, 23, 24, 27, 34
Kaminaljuyu, 48
Kassite dynasty, 178, 184, 185
Katla volcano, 71, 78, 80; eruption of, 82–83; flooding, 73, 76, 81
Katrina, Hurricane, victims of, 57
KBP. See Kuril Biocomplexity Project
Key hazards. See Hazards
Klamath, 47
Knowledge systems, 15, 44, 47, 240; ecological, 9, 12; hazards and disasters in, 57–58, 59, 106
Krísuvík farm, 71
Kuril Biocomplexity Project (KBP), 19, 22, 30
Kuril Islands, 7, 42; archaeology, 22–25; biogeography of, 20–21; earthquakes and tsunamis, 30–31; hunter-gatherers in, 19, 36–37; settlement patterns, 13, 35–36, 239; social evolution on, 228–29; socioeconomic connections, 33–35; volcanic eruptions, 25–30, 228; weather and climate change, 31–33
Lágeyjarhverfi, 73
Lahars, from Popocatepetl, 53
Laki volcano, 69, 70–71, 72, 75, 76
Lambayeque Valley, 127–28
Landeyjar, 72–73
Landnám tephra layer, 78
Landscapes, and volcanic hazards, 79–80
Landslides, Kuril Islands, 27
La Quemada, 11, 201, 202, 203–4
Late Bronze Age, 174, 178; state collapse in, 184–85
Late Horizon, coastal Peru, 130
Late Intermediate Period, coastal Peru, 130
Late Postclassic period, Teotihuacan, 147
Late Preceramic Period, coastal Peru, 129
Lava flows, Iceland, 71–72, 75–76
La Ventilla, 153
Lesser Antilles, 93
Lineages, and subsistence issues, 230–31
Livestock: in Iceland, 71, 79; in Mesopotamia, 169, 175; and volcanic eruptions, 70, 73, 74–75
Locust outbreaks, 180
Lomas de Punta Alegre caves, 104
Los Buchillones, 101–2, 104, 105
Makanrushi Island, 27
Malpaso Valley, 201; agave cultivation, 204–5; crop diversification, 203–4
Manchuria, 34
Marine resources: coastal Peru, 126; Kuril Islands, 21
Maximo Gomez, 102
Maya: collapse of Classic, 55–56; Ilopango eruptions, 47–48
Mazama, Mt., 47
Mazapan phase, 150
Medieval period, 58, 242; Iceland, 8–9, 67–68
Medvezhya volcano, 27
Mega-disaster, religious response to, 58–59
Mesa Verde, 201, 202, 211; rigidity traps, 230–31
Mesoamerica, 229; social stratification, 56–57
Mesopotamia, 16, 58, 187, 232, 239; archaeology, 171–73; Bronze Age, 167–71, 183–86; environmental hazards in, 10–11, 173–80, 195; institutional power in, 182–83, 240; resilience, 180–82
Mexico, 11; northern, 200, 203–5, 221; volcanism, 7, 44–45, 52–55
Mexico, Basin of, 153, 157, 158, 165; paleoenvironmental studies, 143, 144–45, 148
Miccaotli phase, 150
Middle Ages. See Medieval period
Migration, US Southwest, 230–31
Military bases, Kuril Islands, 25, 27
Millet farming, 24
Mimbres, 201, 202, 230; environmental change, 11, 211; irrigation systems, 206, 207–8
Miraflores branch, 56; Ilopango eruption, 47–48, 55, 229
Mitigation, 6, 73, 106; Caribbean island strategies, 9, 100, 114–15; disaster, 12, 229–30; hydraulic systems, 154–56; Precolumbian strategies, 7–8
Mobility, 240; hunter-gatherer societies, 36–37
Monumental architecture, Teotihuacan, 153–54
Muhammad, 58–59
Myvatnssveit, 71
Myth, 3, 15; hazard and disaster information in, 57–58
Naiji pottery, 24
Natural disasters, 2, 12, 232; institutional responses to, 186–87; societal responses to, 229–30
Navajas, Cerro de las, obsidian from, 145
New Orleans, response to Katrina, 57
Norse, on Greenland, 242
Northern Mesopotamia, 168–69, 183, 184; environmental hazards, 173–80
North Pacific low pressure system, 32
Northwest Coast, earthquake and tsunami knowledge, 44, 58
Ocean currents, Caribbean, 93
Ögmundarhraun lava, 71
Okhotsk culture, 23–24, 34, 35, 36
Okhotsk Sea: circulation patterns, 32–33; tsunamis, 30, 31
Old Babylonian Period, 183–84, 186
Olive trees, 176
Onekotan Islands, 24
Örœfajökull, 73
Örœfajökull volcano, 71
Otumba, 150, 151; erosion, 152
Oyashio Current, 32
Paleoenvironmental studies, 154; Teotihuacan Valley, 143, 144–45, 148, 149–50
Paleolithic, social organization in, 224, 227
Panama, 51; Barriles culture in, 52, 57
Papua New Guinea, oral history in, 47
Paramushir Island, 25
Pastoralism: Iceland, 71, 76; Mesopotamia, 168–69, 175
Peru, coastal, 117–18, 121; archaeology, 128–30; ENSO, 9–10, 119–20; food procurement systems, 124–26, 239; human-environment interaction, 140–41; key hazards, 126–28; social complexity, 130–33, 133, 134, 134–35
Peru Current, marine resources, 126–27
Peten, Ilopango eruption, 48, 55
Petroglyphs, as boundary markers, 51
Phoenix basin, Hohokam irrigation systems, 208–9
Physical sciences, hazard-disaster research, 3–4
Playon volcano, 50
Pollen analysis, Teotihuacan region, 148, 149–50
Pollution, from Icelandic volcanoes, 69, 74–75
Population: coastal Peru, 130–35; Iceland, 76; Teotihuacan, 146–47; US Southwest, 229–30
Population density, 28, 52, 59, 239
Population growth, 2, 16, 59–60, 130, 208, 233; land ownership and, 231, 232; and volcanic eruptions, 28, 52
Preceramic Period, coastal Peru, 130
Precipitation, 10, 157, 168, 200; in Caribbean, 97–98, 100; coastal Peru, 126, 127
Puebla, 53
Puebla-Tlaxcala region, goods from, 153
Punta Alegre, 102
Putun Maya, 55–56
Pyramids, Basin of Mexico, 54
Pyroclastic flows, Iceland, 69
Radiocarbon dating, 77, 102, 130
Rasshua 1, 28–29
Rauðalœkr, 73
Redistribution systems, Mesopotamia, 181
Refugees, 3; from volcanic eruptions, 53, 54, 56, 145
Relief organizations, 14
Religion, 2, 3; hazard and disaster knowledge in, 57–58, 100; response to mega-disasters, 58–59
Resilience, 6, 20, 92, 147, 197; Icelandic communities, 76, 89; Mesopotamia, 10–11, 180–85; of small-scale mobile societies, 36–37; social-ecological systems and, 198–200, 213, 243; sociopolitical organization and, 45–50; to volcanic eruptions, 57, 59
Revegetation, 73
Revolts, Kuril Islands, 35
Reykjahlíð, 71
Reykjanes Peninsula, 71
Rigidity traps: Mesa Verde region, 230–31; in social-ecological systems, 210–13
Risks, 3, 6, 149; El Niño and, 130–33, 134
Ritual practice, 15
River channels, shifts in, 177–78
Robustness, 198
Russia, and Kuril Islands, 24–25, 34, 35
Saint Helens ash, Mt., 48
Salinas de Chao, 129
Salinas region (N.M.), 201, 202
Salinization, Mesopotamia, 178–79, 183
Sandur plains, 73
San Juan, Rio, 151
San Lorenzo, Rio, 151
Santa Valley, archaeology of, 130
Satsumon culture, 23
Save the Children, urban planning, 103
Sea level rise, Caribbean islands, 9, 95–97, 97
Sea lions, 21
Seals, 21
Sedentism, 240
Seismicity, Kuril Islands, 22
Self-reliance, Icelandic communities, 89
Service, Elman, on cultural evolution, 224–25
Settlement location, 13, 35–36, 71, 238–29, 239, 240; Caribbean islands, 9, 102–5; tsunamis and, 30–31; volcanogenic flooding and, 72–73
Shellfish, 21
Shikotan Island, 24
Shumshu Island, 28
Skeiðarársandur plain, 73
Skerin fissure, 82
Skógasandur, 73
Social complexity, 20, 123–24; coastal Peru, 130–33, 134, 134–35; Teotihuacan Valley, 156–57; vulnerability and, 45–50, 54–55
Social construction processes, 227–28
Social control, elites and, 8, 58
Social-ecological systems, 230–31, 237; environmental change and, 198–200; rigidity traps and, 210–13; Teotihuacan region, 147–48; vulnerabilities, 242–43
Social evolution, 11, 224–25, 226; hazards and resilience in, 228–31
Social networks, 17; isolation and, 11, 33–35; reciprocal, 14–15, 240
Social relations, 8, 11, 124; subsistence and, 230–31
Social stratification: Mesoamerican, 54–55, 56–57, 152; Mesopotamia, 11, 172–73
Societies, 44, 201; disruption of, 51–52; evolution of, 224–26; flexibility of, 35–36, 89, 181, 211, 240; Icelandic, 68, 69, 71; Mesopotamia, 172–73; response to hazards, 223–24; small-scale mobile, 36–37; vulnerability and resilience of, 45–50, 52–55, 56–58
Socioeconomic networks: Caribbean, 105; Kuril Islands, 33–35, 37
Sociopolitical structure, Mesopotamia, 169
Sodalities: Mesa Verde, 230–31; pan-tribal, 224–25
Soil analyses, Teotihuacan region, 148
Soil degradation: Classic Maya, 55; Mesopotamia, 179. See also Salinization
South America, and ENSO, 9–10
South Asia, 14
Southeast Asia, 187
Southern Mesopotamia, 168–69; Babylonian control, 183–84; river channel shifts, 177–78; salinization, 178–79
Spanish Colonial period: Basin of Mexico, 150, 155–56, 165; Central America, 50; coastal Peru, 127–28
Spanish Conquest: Basin of Mexico, 165; coastal Peru, 130, 132, 140
Storms, Kuril Islands, 32
Street of the Dead (Teotihuacan), 151, 153–54
Subsistence, 14, 153, 232, 240; Caribbean islands, 9, 105; coastal Peru, 124–26; diversification of, 202–6, 213, 221; Iceland, 71, 76; Kuril Islands, 19, 36–37; and social structure, 230–31. See also Agriculture; Hunter-gatherers; Pastoralism
Sumatra, 58
Supe Culture, 128–29
Syria, 180, 186; Bronze Age sites, 169, 171
Talud-tablero architecture, distribution of, 53
Taxation, Southeast Asia, 187
Technology, environmental challenges, 241
Tells, Mesopotamian, 171, 171–72
Tenancy, institutional, 187
Teotihuacan, 10, 143, 165, 239; decline of, 146–47; exchange system, 145–46; growth of, 151–54; and volcanic refugees, 53, 54, 232; water control systems, 154–56, 165
Teotihuacan Valley, 146; deforestation, 149–50, 239; environment, 144–45, 146–47, 155–56; erosion in, 150–51, 152; hazards, 148–49; social complexity of, 156–57; social-ecological structure, 147–48
Tephra falls: Central America, 48, 49; in Iceland, 73–74, 78, 82–83. See also Volcanic ash
Tephrochronology, 77–78, 81, 82
Terraces, 241; Teotihuacan Valley, 153, 155
Texcoco, Lake, draining of, 155–56
Thjórsardalur region, 80
Thórarinsson, Sigurdur, 77
Thórsmörk, settlement of, 79–80
Tigris River, 178; floods on, 176–77
Tlailotlacan, 153
Tlajinga region, 153; erosional sequences at, 150–51
Tlamimilolpa phase, 150
Toluca Valley, 153
Toxic fallout, from volcanoes, 74–75
Trade networks: Ainu and, 34–35; Basin of Mexico, 145–46; Mayan, 55–56
Transformability, 147
Tribes, 224–25
Tsunamis, 14; knowledge of, 44, 58; Kuril Islands, 7, 22, 30–31
Tula, 154
Tzacualli phase, 153
US Southwest, 11, 200, 221; irrigation systems, 206–10, 239; population and environment, 229–30; rigidity traps, 210–13; social-ecological systems, 230–31
Urban centers, 165; environmental hazards, 10–11; Mesopotamia, 169–71, 172–73; social-ecological structure, 147–48; Teotihuacan as, 151–54
Urban planning, 103; Teotihuacan, 151–53
Urup Island, 24
Vegetation, 144; tephra falls, 73–74, 78
VEI. See Volcanic Explosivity Index
Veiðivötn, tephra from, 78
Villages: Mesa Verde, 230–31; resilience and vulnerability of, 45–50, 52
Volcanic ash deposits, 4; Central America, 47, 48; dating of, 77–78; Iceland, 69; Kuril Islands, 22, 25–26, 27, 28–29; Teotihuacan region, 149
Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI), 45–46, 52, 57, 229
Volcanic gases, Icelandic volcanoes, 75
Volcanism, 4, 5, 7, 13, 64–65, 76, 127; Basin of Mexico, 144–45, 232; Central America, 45–50; emergency planning for, 80–81; flooding and, 69, 72–73, 81–82; Iceland, 8, 9, 67–69, 70–71; Kuril Islands, 25–30; Mexico and Central America, 44–45; pollution and fallout, 74–75; responses to, 56–57, 238–39; social evolution and, 228–29; sociopolitical vulnerability and, 52–55
Vulnerabilities, 6, 92, 197, 198, 203, 208, 240–41; assessing, 8, 47; settlement location and, 104–5; social-ecological systems, 213, 239, 242–43; sociopolitical complexity and, 45–50, 52, 54–55
Warfare, 57
Washington, Mt. St. Helens ash in, 48
Water-control systems: Teotihuacan, 153, 154–56, 165; US Southwest, 206–10, 230
Wattle and daub architecture, 59, 65
Waxaklajuun Ubaah K’awiil, 56
Weather, 76; Kuril Islands, 31–33; Mesa Verde region, 230; Mesopotamia, 168, 175–76
Wei Empire, collapse of, 58
Wind shear, 92
Winters, severe, 175–76
World War II, Kuril Islands, 24, 25
Written record, Mesopotamia, 172–73
Xitle volcano, 54
Xolalpan phase, 150
Yankitcha Island caldera, 28
Zacatecas. See Malpaso Valley
Zapotitan Valley, 48