Index

Bible, 194, 210, 211n2. See also Corinthians; Ephesians; Ezekiel; Gospel; Isaiah; John; Joshua; Luke; Malachi; Mark; Matthew; New Testament; Numbers; Psalms; Old Testament; Revelation; Romans; Thessalonians; Vulgate

Biondo, Flavio, 249, 262n1

bishops, 33, 51–52, 175

Bithynia-Pontus, 34

Black Sea, 37

blood, 14, 62, 63, 67, 69, 72, 73, 76, 80n18, 80n19, 81n25, 81n29, 100, 117, 126, 129, 153, 156, 199, 237

Boldogasszony, 11, 52–53, 55

Boniface (Roman General), 121

Book of Enoch, 235

Boone, Elizabeth H., 165n28

Boturini, Lorenzo, 158–159, 165n28, 165n31

Brazil, 125, 138n30

Britannia, 12, 62

British Museum, London, 108f, 255, 256f

Bronze Age, 37

Browne, Walden, 177

Bry, Theodore de, 133, 138n30

Buda, 117

Buddhism, 4

Bulgaria, 117

Busiris, 12, 60

Bustamante García, Jesús, 179, 201

Cabeza de Vaca, Álvar Núñez, 13, 125, 133

Caesar, Julius, 35, 61f, 62, 65

calendars, 16, 33, 34, 74, 96f, 97, 100, 155, 156–157, 159, 165n29, 196–207, 197f, 210, 212n8. See also Amiternum calendar; tōnalpōhualli

Caligula, 63

Callimachus, 234

Camaxtli, 110n6

Cambrensis, Giraldus, 127

cannibalism. See anthropophagy/cannibalism

Cantares Mexicanos, 147, 203

Capitolia, 6

Capitoline triad, 6, 119

Carib (Quaris), 122, 126

Cartas de Relación (Hernán Cortés), 250

Carthage, 6, 80n11

Carthaginians, 12, 60

Cassius Dio, 62

Castile, 135

Castilian language/Spanish, 14, 136n12, 161, 162n1, 163n5, 165n26, 177, 179, 180, 195, 199, 207, 244n2, 254, 259, 260, 261, 265n13

Castilians, 19n5, 128

Cataphrygians, 64

Catholic Church, 15, 55, 157, 162, 194. See also bishops; deacons; friars; popes; priests

Catholic Monarchs/Monarchy, 181, 250

Catholic ritual, 74, 165n29, 206

Catholicism / Catholic dogma / Catholic faith, 55, 126, 155, 240–243

caves, 68, 149, 150f, 154, 155, 159, 162, 164n25, 193

Celtiberians, 71

Celts, 12, 61, 71, 72, 93, 97. See also Gauls

Centeotl, 182

Cenyaotl, 205–206

Ceres, 182, 186n11, 186n12, 258, 266n20

Charles V, 67, 68f, 129, 175

Chaves, Jerónimo de, 206

Chichimecs, 91–92, 94, 103

Chicomecoatl, 59, 182, 186n11

Chicoyaotl, 205–206

Chilam Balam of Ixil, 212n10

Chimalpahin Cuauhtlehuanitzin, 212n10

Chiribichi, 127–128, 134

Chocho divination books, 211n3

Cholula, 16, 89, 218–243

Convent of San Gabriel at, 16, 218–243

chrismon, 230

Christ, 11, 12, 16, 19n10, 30, 45, 46–48, 49–50, 55, 63, 73, 74, 75, 90, 110, 223, 224–229, 224f, 233, 237, 239, 241, 243

Christ-Helios, 12, 19n10, 90, 110

Christian Empire, 13, 121

Christian iconography, 11, 45, 219–243

Christian martyrs. See martyrdom/martyrs

Christian soldiers, 120, 124. See also miles Christi

Christendom, 135

Christianity, 6, 11, 12, 15, 17, 33, 50, 51–55, 63, 64, 73–74, 92, 94, 106, 109, 110, 120, 136n9, 165n29, 174, 180, 184, 212n9, 230, 232, 237, 249, 253

Christianization / conversion to Christianity, 12, 55, 75, 76, 89, 90, 109, 118–120, 158, 183, 225, 243, 253, 259, 263

Christians, 6, 11, 12, 16, 17, 19n5, 19n9, 46, 48, 49, 50, 55, 58, 60, 62, 63–65, 74, 76, 78, 80n10, 120, 121, 123–124, 126, 136n9, 194, 209–210, 211n2, 226, 228, 240, 241, 253

Cicero (Marcus Tullius), 60, 107

Cihuacoatl, 81n25, 94, 156

Cihuateteo, 209f

Cimbri, 60

Ciruelo, Pedro, 211n5, 213n15

Cisneros (Cardinal), 250, 263n3

City of God (Augustine of Hippo). See De Civitate Dei

civilizations, 7–8, 181. See also Aztec/Mexica civilization; Greco-Roman civilization; Greek civilization

Claudius, 34, 61

Clemens Alexandrinus, 60

Coanao, 129–130, 134

Codex Borbonicus, 157, 207

Codex Chimalpopoca, 81n25, 103

Codex Fejérváry-Mayer, 73

Codex Gómez de Orozco, 110n5

Codex Mexicanus, 207

Codex of Huamantla. See Huamantla Map

Codex Telleriano-Remensis, 207

Codex Theodosianus, 64

Codex Tudela, 72f

Codex Vaticanus A, 94, 100, 110n5, 207, 212n8

Codex Xolotl, 90

Códices Matritenses (Sahagún), 178–179. See also Primeros Memoriales

coins, 31, 48, 95, 104, 106, 107, 110n2, 249, 256, 265n18

Colchester, 34

Colegio Imperial de la Santa Cruz. See Tlatelolco

Cologne, 34, 137n14

colonialism, 3–18, 29–30

Columbus, Christopher, 3, 4, 7, 13, 122–123, 126, 130, 135–136, 137n27

comparison / comparative method / comparative history / comparativism 3–18, 19n4, 19n7, 19n8, 67, 74, 80n13, 80n17, 89, 90, 91, 94, 97, 101, 106, 107–110, 122, 173–185, 185n2, 185n5, 185n8, 185n11, 186n18, 186n19, 248, 250–252, 257. See also religion, comparative study of

Compasio Patris, 229

conquests, 28, 38n5, 157, 250. See also Roman Empire; Spanish colonial empire: spiritual conquest

Constans, Flavius Julius, 120

Constantine, Flavius Valerius (the Great), 13, 104, 111n8, 120, 121

Constantius, Flavius Julius, 120

convents, 16, 75, 127, 143, 148, 152, 159, 160, 161, 162, 164n19, 165n29, 201–202, 218–243, 244n1, 224n2

Convent at Tlatelolco. See Tlatelolco

Convent of Saint Gabriel. See Cholula

conversion to Christianity. See Christianization

Copts, 94

Corinthian order, 234

Corinthians, First Epistle to the, 136n10, 232

Corinthians, Second Epistle to the, 136n10

Cortés, Hernán, 13, 65, 66, 67, 68f, 69, 70, 71, 129, 133, 137n21, 143, 148, 152, 159, 160, 161, 162, 164n20, 175, 250, 252, 263n2, 263n3, 263n4, 264n5, 264n8

Council of Laodicea, 11, 48

Council of the Indies, 127, 128, 212n9

cow. See animals as metaphors/mantic signs

Coyolxauhqui, 100, 101, 102

Crispus, Flavius Julius, 120

Cronos, 65, 79n7

Csango Hungarians, 52

cuāuhxīcalli, 71–72

Cuba, 129

Cuixtli, 159

cult of the emperor, 119. See also ruler cult

Cupan. See Koppány

curse tablets, 11, 48

Cybele, 35

Cypriots, 60

dance, 145–146, 160, 162

Danube, 117

Dasius of Durostorum, 79n7

De Civitate Dei (Augustine), 15, 173–185

deacons, 48

Delaware, 239

Delphi, 193

Demeter, 37, 51

Demetra, 51

demonic possession, 124, 125

demonization, 20n11, 117, 134

demons, 11, 17, 46, 48, 49, 51, 64, 75, 117, 121–130, 134–135, 184, 194, 229, 230, 253, 262. See also devils

Devil, 13, 17, 66, 75, 80n12, 120, 121, 126, 127, 129, 183, 186n20, 193, 198, 199, 200, 204, 208, 210, 212n7, 262. See also Satan

devils, 129, 177, 178, 179, 198f. See also demons

devotio hostium, 62

Diana, 186n12, 258, 266n20

Díaz del Castillo, Bernal, 13, 69, 71, 73, 76, 129, 137n23, 164n20, 250, 252, 262, 262n2, 263n4, 264n8

Dies Solis, 12, 110

Diocletian, 79n7. See also Baths of Diocletian

Diodorus Siculus, 251

Dionysus Omestes, 79n5

Dis Pater, 60

disease, 30, 32, 70, 228

divination, 15, 16, 17, 180, 193–210, 211n3, 211n5, 212n11, 239, 261

divinatory calendar. See tōnalpōhualli

Doctrina Pueril (Llull), 229

dog. See animals as metaphors/mantic signs

dogma, 27, 33, 36, 127, 240

Dominicans (religious order), 15, 65, 90, 127, 145, 176, 180, 193, 210, 211n6

Dominus Dei, 12

Domitian, 34

donkey. See animals as metaphors/mantic signs

Druids, 33, 61f

Dumias, 35

Durán, Diego, 59, 69, 75, 102, 145, 146, 207, 210, 212n11

Dürer, Albrecht, 252, 262, 264n8

Durostorum, 79n7

eagle. See animals as metaphors/mantic signs

Eclogue 4 (Virgil), 240

Egypt, 33, 37, 47, 59, 60, 93, 94, 97, 107, 109, 250–252, 264n5, 264n6

Egyptians, 12, 37, 181

Elagabalus, 93, 106, 107, 111

Elcano, Juan Sebastián, 3, 5

Elements of Theology, 107

Eleusis, 51

Eliot, T. S., 8

Emilianense Beatus. See Beatus Emilianense

empire, concept of, 4–10

England, 117, 127

English language, 117, 163n9, 164n16

English people, 28

Ephesians, Epistle to the, 136n10, 230

Epiphanius, 64

Epiphany, 225

Erfurt, 18n1

Ethiopians, 37

Etruria, 32, 37

Etruscans, 62

Eucharist, 73–78, 81n30, 230, 234

Europe, 4, 5, 13, 14, 31, 32, 73, 74, 117, 122, 124, 124f, 125, 127, 134, 135, 234, 241, 248, 249, 253, 259, 262

Europeans, 10, 12, 13, 15, 17, 27, 28, 31, 33, 58, 74, 92, 118, 123, 125, 130, 134, 135, 136, 143, 148, 152, 160, 162, 164n17, 178, 180, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 254, 261, 266n26

Eusebius of Caesarea, 120

extermination, 74, 134. See also genocide

Ezekiel, book of, 218, 235

Ezekiel, prophet, 235

Ezekiel’s wheel, 218

Farinati, Paolo, 75

feast days, 55, 97, 102

feasting/feasts, 75, 81n30, 118, 126, 129, 132, 200

feathered serpent. See Quetzalcoatl

Felicity (martyr), 63

Feriae Latinae. See Jupiter Latiaris

Fernández de Echeverría y Veytia, Mariano, 165n31

Fernández de Oviedo, Gonzalo, 13, 126–127, 133–134, 137n18, 173n20, 176

Fifth Sun, 69, 80n19, 100, 103, 149, 150f, 154, 155, 164n15, 165n26

Fiore, Joachim of, 218, 223, 242. See also Joachinism

Firmicus Maternus, Julius, 120

Flemish friars, 175

Flemish language, 137n14

Flemish style, 194

Florence, 136n12

Florentine Codex (Sahagún), 17, 94, 145, 160, 165n26, 166n36, 176–177, 179, 186n11, 195–210, 198f, 202f, 205f, 208f, 209f, 248, 249, 254–262, 258f, 265n13, 265n17. See also Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva España

Florescano, Enrique, 92

Florida, 125

Florus, Lucius Annaeus, 120

flowers, 75, 147–148, 155, 159, 160, 161, 163n7, 232

flowery wars. See xōchiyāōyōtl

Francis of Assisi, 194, 229

Franciscans (religious order), 15, 90, 99, 159, 174–177, 185n7, 202, 203, 204, 206, 210, 218–243, 244n1, 253

French Canadians, 28

French language, 28, 31, 165n26

French people, 28, 31

friars, 14–17, 55, 59, 65, 78, 91, 128, 143, 145, 154, 158, 160, 161, 173–185, 193–210, 211n6, 212n7, 212n8, 212n9, 218–243, 244n1, 244n2, 253, 254, 261, 262, 265n10. See also Augustinians; Dominicans; Franciscans

Froschauer, Johann, 131, 133f

Fuggers, 137n16

Gallego, Fernando, 194

Gante, Pedro de, 76, 206

Garza Camino, Mercedes de la, 102

Gaul, 35, 97, 105, 107

Gauls, 12, 35, 60, 61, 62, 94. See also Celts

Gaza, 11, 48–50

Genghis Khan, 4

Genius, 104, 186n12

genocide, 29, 32, 38n7. See also extermination

German language, 124, 137n14, 137n28

Germans, 122

Germany, 18, 35

globalization, concept of, 4–10, 19n3. See also religion and globalization

glottography, 144, 154, 163n3, 165n34

goatling. See animals as metaphors/mantic signs

God (Christian), 8, 13, 15, 47, 48, 50, 53, 66, 74, 120–121, 125, 126, 128, 147, 148, 174, 177–178, 184, 194, 203, 208, 218, 223, 226, 228, 229, 232, 233, 235, 237, 239, 240, 242, 243

God’s chariot, 218

God’s throne, 235

goddesses, 11, 35, 46, 48, 51, 54, 55, 59, 81n25, 155, 156, 186n11, 186n12, 204, 205

gods, 20n11, 35–38, 45, 55, 74, 78, 89, 93, 96, 98, 105–109, 119, 147, 178–184, 193, 224f, 230, 251, 253. See also specific gods by name

Aztec, 12, 54–55, 59, 66, 69, 71, 73, 74, 80n13, 80n18, 81n25, 89, 91, 94, 95–105, 109–110, 110n6, 129, 146, 155, 159, 186n19, 196, 197, 197f, 200, 201, 203, 204, 205, 205f, 210, 213n14, 254, 255, 257, 260

Celtic. See Gaulish

Gaulish, 35

Greco-Roman, 15, 34, 35–38, 46, 50, 51, 59, 64, 65, 80, 80n13, 80n17, 91, 93, 95–98, 104–109, 119, 176–184, 186n12, 186n16, 186n19, 194, 257

Mayan, 70–71

Mesoamerican, 75, 80n17, 101–102, 174, 175–184, 186n14, 203, 237

Otomi, 155, 159

Gog, 117

Golgotha, 73

Gosden, Chris, 10, 29, 30, 38n4

Gospel, 8, 120, 178, 193, 194. See also New Testament

Gospel of Judas, 64

Goya, Francisco de, 66f

graphic communication, 14, 144, 154, 158

Great Lakes, 10, 28. See also pays d’en haut

Greco-Roman civilization, 15, 19n2, 67, 78, 80n9, 80n13, 92, 93, 95–107, 174, 193–210, 239, 250, 251, 253, 257, 265n19. See also antiquity, classical

Greek civilization, 59

Greek history, 65–66

Greek language and writing, 11, 45, 56n2, 105, 223

Greek pottery, 60f, 67

Greeks, 6, 12, 19n8, 28, 29, 31, 32, 34, 36, 37, 58, 59, 61, 63, 66, 74, 79n4, 79n5, 95, 194, 234

Gregorius Magnus. See Gregory I

Gregory I, 223

Gruzinski, Serge, 5, 165n29

Guadalupe, Juan de, 241

Guadalupe, Our Lady of, 30, 54–55

Hadrumentum, 80n11

Hammon, 65

hare. See animals as metaphors/mantic signs

Hartvik, 51

Heavenly Jerusalem, 241. See also New Jerusalem

Hecuba, 60

Helios, 12, 19n10, 89, 90, 94, 95, 97, 100, 101, 104, 106, 107, 108, 110, 110n2

Hellenistic world, 6, 59, 60, 91, 92, 93, 94, 97, 105, 109, 234

Herakles, 37, 39n14, 60

Hercules, 35, 101, 183, 186n19

Heresy/heretics, 13, 33, 120, 232, 242

Herodotus, 37, 59, 250, 251

heterodoxy, 64, 78

hetoimasia, 228

Hicks, Edward, 238–239, 238f

Hieronymus, Eusebius Sophronius, 11, 48

Hilarion, 11, 48–50

Historia de los Mexicanos por sus Pinturas, 102–103

Historia Eclesiástica Indiana (Mendieta), 180, 242

Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva España (Sahagún), 101, 177, 204. See also Florentine Codex

history of religion. See religion, history of

Holy Land, 234

Holy Scripture, 209

Holy Spirit, 46, 229, 230. See also Age of the Holy Spirit

Homer, 32, 37, 194, 211n2

Homeric Hymns, 107

Homiliae in Hiezechielem (Gregorius Magnus), 223

homosexuality. See sexuality

Horace, 119

hortus conclusus, 220

Huamantla, 13–14, 143–162, 164n19, 164n21, 165n29, 165n31

Huamantla Map, 80n15, 143–162, 162n1, 163n10, 163n11, 163n13, 164n18, 164n19, 164n22, 165n28, 165n31

huēi tlahtoāni. See tlahtoāni

Huēi Tzompantli, 70

Huichol culture, 237

Huitzilopochtli, 12, 69, 75, 77, 91, 93, 94, 95–110, 110n6, 182–183, 186n17, 186n18, 186n19

human sacrifice, 58–78, 79n2, 100, 125

Albanoi, 60

arrows as instruments of, 68, 156

Athamas of Thessaly, 59

Aztecs, 65–73, 72f, 76–78, 76f, 103

Busiris (Egypt), 12, 60

cardiectomy, 67, 71, 77. See also heart extraction

Carthaginians, 12, 60

Celts, 12, 61. See also Gauls

children, 12, 64, 65, 67, 69, 70, 75–77, 77f, 78

Cimbri, 60

Cypriots, 60

Druids, 61f

Egyptians. See Busiris

Forum Boarium, 12, 61, 64

Gauls, 12, 60, 61, 62

Greeks, 12, 58–63, 60f, 66, 67, 74, 79n4, 79n5

heart extraction, 67, 68, 69, 71–72, 72f, 77, 81n24, 153

Lemnians, 60

Lusitanians, 60

maize deity, sacrifice to, 68

Mesoamericans, 12, 58, 59, 64, 65–78, 100, 103, 104, 153, 164n17, 237. See also Aztecs

Mount Lykaion (Arcadia), 79n4

nextlāhualli, 72, 80n19

Otomi, 14, 80n15, 153, 154, 156, 157–158

pagans, 11–12, 17, 58–78

parthenos/virgins, 59, 63, 79n6

Polixena, 60f

Saturn, sacrifices to, 59, 64, 65

self-sacrifice, 12, 25, 73, 81n25, 100, 149, 150f, 155

Scythians, 12, 59, 60, 74

senatus consultu (prohibition of human sacrifices), 62

solar deities, sacrifices to, 68, 69, 77, 80n19, 100, 103, 104, 109, 149, 237

Tauri (Pontus), 12, 60

telluric deities, sacrifices to, 68, 80n19, 156, 237

variations of, 68

Verulanium (Brittannia), 12

Humboldt, Alexander von, 158

Hungarians/Hungary, 11, 51–53, 55

Hymn to Helios, 107

iconography, 11, 14, 34, 36, 45–46, 59, 78, 93, 97, 104, 144, 218–243, 257

idols/idolatry, 13, 15, 17, 50, 67, 80n12, 90, 125, 126, 134, 174, 175, 177, 179–185, 185n1, 196, 197–198, 199–201, 203, 206, 207, 209, 226, 248, 250, 251, 253, 257, 258, 259, 262, 263n2, 263n4, 264n9, 264–265n10, 265n11

Ignatius of Antioch, 63

īīxiptlah, 59, 68, 71, 255

imago clipeata, 224f, 226–227, 239, 243

imperialism, 28, 119. See also religion as an instrument of imperial domination; religion as an instrument of resistance

imperium, 119

in tlīlli, in tlapalli, 145

Inca Empire, 5

incest. See sexuality

Indians. See American Indians / Amerindians /Indians / Indigenous Americans / Native Americans

Inquisition, Tribunal of the, 201, 213n13

Instrucción (de los Ángeles), 241

interpretatio, 38n13, 92–94, 98, 257

invention of religion. See religion, invention of

Ireland, 127

Isaiah, book of, 16, 218, 223, 224, 226, 229, 230, 237, 239, 240, 243

Isidore of Seville, 16, 194, 196, 199, 251

Isis, 34, 35, 37, 38n12, 92–93. See also priests, Isiac

Israel, 121, 201

Italian language, 136n12, 137n14

Italians, 122

Italicus, 49–50

Italy, 6, 18n1, 106, 125

Iuppiter Optimus Maximus Heliopolitanus, 93

Iyacateuctli, 182. See also Yacateuctli

ixiptla. See īīxiptlah

Ixmiquilpan, 235

jaguar. See animals as metaphors/mantic signs

Janus, 186n12

Jehovah’s Witnesses, 239

Jerusalem, 243. See also Temple of Jerusalem

Jesse, lineage of, 223

Jesse’s tree/shoot/branch/root, 16, 221–224, 230, 234, 235, 243

Jesuits (religious order), 8, 15, 30

Jesus Christ. See Christ

Jesús María, José de, 240

Jewish/Jews, 64, 74, 78, 120, 121, 225, 226, 239, 253, 264n6, 264n10

Joachinism, 218, 242

John (evangelist), 81n29, 106

John the Baptist, 46

Jordan, River, 46

Josephus, Flavius, 64

Judaea-Palestine, 33

Judaism, 63

Judgment, Day of, 117, 229, 234, 235, 237, 242

Julian (Julianus imperator / Julian the Apostate), 63, 98, 107, 109

Juno, 6, 119, 186n12

Jupiter, 6, 35, 36, 59, 65, 97, 107, 108, 110n2, 119, 186n12. See also Iuppiter Optimus Maximus Heliopolitanus; Jupiter Latiaris

Jupiter Latiaris (Feriae Latinae), 64, 65

Justin (martyr), 62, 64, 65, 223

Kiev, 117

K’in, 100

kingdom of peace, 218. See also peaceable kingdom

Koppány, 51

Kotor, 117

Krakow, 117

La Malinche (volcano), 148, 149

La Navidad, 135

Lactantius, 60, 64, 65

Ladislaus, 52

lamb. See animals as metaphors/mantic signs

Laodicea. See Council of Laodicea

Lares, 59

Las Casas, Bartolomé de, 13, 15, 19n8, 74, 98, 129, 133, 134, 176, 182, 193, 210n1, 211n6, 250–252, 264n5. See also Valladolid controversy

Latin alphabet. See alphabet

Latin language/writing, 35, 45, 56n2, 81n25, 100, 105–106, 136n12, 137n14, 138n30, 199, 203, 223, 249

law, 52, 90, 119, 126, 145, 226

lawlessness, 60, 117, 128

Legenda Maior Sancti Francisci (Bonaventure), 229

Lele (Congo), 81n30

Lemnians, 60

Lenus, 35

Leo X, 175

León-Portilla, Miguel, 71, 91, 92, 98, 110n5

leopard. See animals as metaphors/mantic signs

Leviathan, 227

Leyenda de los Soles, 81n25, 103, 165n26

Liber, father, 186n12

Liber Figurarum, 218

Libio-Phoenicians, 94

Licinia Amias, 45–46

lion. See animals as metaphors/mantic signs

Lisbon, 122, 137n14, 137n16

Llull, Ramon, 229

London, 18n1, 108f, 256f

López Austin, Alfredo, 92, 94, 105

López de Gómara, Francisco, 19n8, 76, 264n5

Louvre Museum, 111n11

Lucan, 62

Lucian of Samosata, 63

Luke (evangelist), 120

Luna, 100, 104, 186n12

Lusitanians, 60

Lyon, 34

Macrobius, 98, 107, 109

Madrid Codex, 70, 72

Magellan, Ferdinand, 3, 5

Magog, 117

Malachi, 106

Malakbêl, 105, 107, 111n11

Mania (mother of the Lares), 59

maps, 13–14, 67, 68f, 80n15, 143–162, 162n1, 163n11, 163n13, 164n19, 164n20, 164n21, 164n22, 165n28, 165n31

Marchionni, Bartolomeo, 122, 137n15

Mark (evangelist), 81n29, 136n8

Marnas, 49–50

Mars/Martes, 35, 183, 186n12, 186n18, 186n19

Mars Lenus, 35

martyrdom/martyrs, 12, 63, 71, 78, 229, 232, 243. See also Felicity; Justin; Perpetua

Mary, 11, 51–55, 262

massacres, 129, 134, 160

Mater Magna, 35

Matlatzinca, 94

Matthew (evangelist), 81n29, 120, 136n8, 229

Maxentius, 63

Maya, 69, 75, 81, 100, 163n2, 252

Mayan languages/writing, 70–71, 100, 212n10, 263n2. See also Pocomam language; Yucatecan language

mayati nekuhu, 145

Meléndez, Pedro, 161

Melqart, 37, 39n14

Mendieta, Gerónimo de, 19n8, 180, 194, 228–229, 241, 242, 243

Mercurius Dumias, 35

Mercury/Mercurius/Mercurii, 35, 182, 186n12, 194

Messiah, 16, 223, 226, 229, 237, 240

Metamorphosis (Ovid), 107

metlatetl, 259, 266n21

Metztli, 100, 103

Mexica, 81–82n31, 91–92, 93, 95–96, 99, 100–105, 161, 175, 183, 186n19, 210, 248–262, 264n8, 264n9, 265n12, 265n16, 265n19, 266n20, 266n23, 266n24

Mexico City, 96f, 143, 149, 152f, 158, 160, 161, 164n18, 165n28, 221, 243, 254

Mexico Tenochtitlan, 6, 67, 68, 69, 77f, 89, 92, 95, 98, 101, 102, 103, 129, 149, 152–157, 155f, 158, 160–161, 164n18, 164n20, 175, 180, 183, 243, 250, 251, 252, 254, 264n8, 265n16, 266n24

Mezquital Valley, 164n23

Michelangelo, 252, 260, 266n22

Mictlan, 73, 81n25

Middle Ages, 37, 136n1, 227, 230, 234, 241

middle ground, 10, 14, 17, 27–38, 38n2, 89, 98, 127, 185n2

The Middle Ground (White), 10

milites Christi, 121

milites diaboli, 13, 121

millenarian doctrines, 37, 39n15, 218

millennial kingdom, 16, 218–243

millennialism, 238, 242

millennium, 218, 240, 242

Mimixcoa, 81–82n31

Minerva, 6, 119, 186n12

Minucius Felix, 60, 64

Miquiz, 205–206

mirrors, 17, 205f, 255, 260–261, 264n8, 266n24, 266n25. See also tezcatetl

missions/missionaries, 6, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19n8, 27, 30, 33, 74, 75, 90, 106, 109, 110, 134, 175–177, 181, 184, 242, 244n1, 248–249, 257

Mithraism, 63, 97

Mithras, 35

Mixcoatl, 110

Mixcoatl, Andrés, 213n13

Mixcoatl, Juan, 165n29

Mixtec codices. See Codex Gómez de Orozco; Rollo Selden

Mixtec kingdoms, 94

Mixtec language/graphic communication, 144, 163n4, 211n3

Mixtecs, 91, 94

Monarquía Indiana (Torquemada), 94, 175, 180–182, 184

Mongols, 4, 117–118, 121

monotheism. See religion and monotheism

Montanists, 64

Moon, 69, 93, 95, 100–101, 103, 108, 110n2, 156, 181, 195, 196, 253

Moors, 66, 204, 212n9, 225

More, Thomas, 89

Moscow, 117

Moteuczoma Xocoyotzin, 103, 146, 161, 164n20, 236, 260

Mother Earth, 11, 53, 101, 156f

Motolinía. See Benavente, Toribio de

Motya, 80n11

Mount Zacatepetl, 236

muan (Mayan celestial bird), 71

muerte arquera, 222

Museo del Prado, Madrid, 66

music, 52, 145–148, 160, 162, 163n9. See also singing/song

myths/mythemes/mythography/mythology, 12, 31, 33, 36, 37, 51, 59, 62, 65, 68, 69, 72, 78, 79n5, 80n19, 82n31, 91, 95, 100–103, 104, 154, 177, 179, 195, 196, 234, 257, 260, 265n19

Nahua, 11, 15, 54–55, 72, 94, 98, 102, 157, 177, 193–210, 211n3, 212n12, 255, 260, 261, 262

nāhualli (plural nāhualtin, Castilian nahuales) 199, 236

Nahuatl language, 14, 68, 72, 75, 81n25, 100, 143, 144, 145, 147–149, 154, 155, 156, 157, 159–161, 163n9, 164n16, 165n26, 166n35, 177, 185n11, 199, 201, 206, 212n10, 254, 255, 259, 260, 265n13, 266n21

Nanahuatzin, 100–101, 149, 150f, 155

Narbonne, Ivo of, 117

National Library of Anthropology and History, Mexico City, 158

National Library of France, Paris, 206

National Museum of Anthropology and History, Mexico City, 165n28

National Roman Museum, Rome, 224f, 231

Native Americans. See American Indians /Amerindians / Indians / Indigenous Americans / Native Americans

Natural History (Pliny), 255, 256, 258, 261, 265n18

Nebrija, Antonio de, 14

Necoc Yaotl, 205–206

neophytes, 12, 16, 210

Neoplatonism, 63, 98, 99, 107

Neptune, 183, 184, 186n12

neteōtoquiliztli, 71

New Fire ritual, 155, 195

New Jerusalem, 235, 239, 241, 242

New Spain, 27–38, 55, 75, 90, 101, 109, 143, 153, 158, 166n35, 174–177, 182, 184, 185n6, 185n7, 202–206, 212n7, 212n9, 218, 220, 225, 237, 239, 241, 242, 244n1, 248–262

New Testament. See Corinthians; Ephesians; Gospel; John; Luke; Mark; Matthew; Revelation; Romans; Thessalonians

New World, 3, 5, 8, 15, 16, 17, 32, 74, 90, 95, 100, 118, 122, 124, 127, 134, 175, 186n20, 204, 225, 232, 238–240, 248, 249, 250, 252, 253, 257, 261, 263n2, 264n5, 264n8, 265n10

Newfoundland, 4

Nezahualpiltzintli, 146

Nicholson, H. B., 92, 165n28

Noche Triste, 129, 134

nopal, 71, 152f

Norse colonization, 4

North America, 28

noûs, 98–99

Numa, 59

Numbers, book of, 234

Nuremberg, 137n14

Obediencia (de los Ángeles), 241

Ocelotl, 159

Octavian, 34, 62

Old Father and Old Mother, 155, 164n25

Old Testament, 13, 120, 223, 237, 240. See also Ezekiel; Isaiah; Numbers; Psalms

Old World, 3, 6, 12, 15, 17, 193, 252

Olmos, Andrés de, 175, 177

Ometeotl, 98

Orcus, 186n12

Order of Friars Minor. See Franciscans

Order of Preachers. See Dominicans

Order of Saint Augustine. See Augustinians

Origen of Alexandria, 60, 98

Otomi, 14, 94, 99, 143–162, 164n19, 164n23, 165n29

Otomi language / graphic communication /writing, 143–162, 164n16, 164n19, 165n29

Ovid, 59, 107

Oviedo. See Fernández de Oviedo, Gonzalo

pagans/paganism, 11–12, 13, 15–17, 19n9, 45–55, 58–78, 79n8, 99, 106–107, 109, 120, 173–185, 193, 200, 203, 204, 206, 225, 253, 254

Painal, 182

paladumentum, 225

Palatine, 62

Palmyra, 93, 105, 111n11

Pandoni, Gianantonio, 249, 262n1

Panquetzaliztli, 75

Paris (city), 111n11, 137n12, 137n14

Paris, Matthew, 117–118, 118f, 121

Parker Library, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, 118f

Paul (apostle), 6, 120, 121, 230, 232

pays d’en haut, 28, 31. See also Great Lakes

peaceable kingdom, 238–240, 238f. See also kingdom of peace

Peloponnesian War, 119

Penn, William, 239

performance, 34, 37, 145, 147, 162

Pergamum, 34

Perpetua (martyr), 63

Persian Empire, 6, 79n5, 92

Persian history, 65–66

Peru, 5

Perusia, 62

Pest, 117

Phaeacians, 37

Phelan, John, 242

Phidias, 258, 265–266n20

Philadelphia, 238

Philip II, 180, 204

philosophy, 98–99, 195, 200–201, 264

Phoenicians, 6. See also Libio-Phoenicians and Syrio-Phoenicians

Phrygia, 211n2

Physiologus, 237

piaculum, 62

Pian del Carpine, Giovanni da, 134

pictorial manuscripts, 14, 80n19, 143–162, 163n10

pīnāhuiztli, 16, 159, 165n33, 207–210, 208f, 212n12

Pipil language, 163n4

plagues, 70, 228

Plato, 99

Pliny the Elder, 251, 255–259, 261, 265n17, 266n20

Plutarch, 60

Pocomam language, 163n4

Polybius, 136n4

polytheism. See religion and polytheism

Pontus, 12, 60. See also Bithynia-Pontus

popes, 33, 175, 223

Popol Vuh, 90

Porphyry, 60, 63

Portugal, 137

Portuguese, 5

Portuguese India, 65–66

Praxiteles, 258, 266n20

pregnancy, 102, 212n12

Priam, 60f

priests

Aztec, 67, 69, 71, 76, 99, 102, 180

Catholic, 17, 55, 253, 261. See also Jesuits

Central Mexican, 154, 182

Egyptian, 33

European, 27

Isiac, 6

Judaea-Palestinian, 33

paleo-Christian, 48, 51–52

Roman, 33, 34, 178

Syrian, 106

Tlaxcalan, 153

Transylvanian, 53

Primeros Memoriales (Sahagún), 176, 185n11, 203. See also Códices Matritenses

promiscuity. See sexuality

Propertius, 62

providentialism, 19n8

Province of the Holy Gospel, 219

Prudentius, 63

Psalms, book of, 223

Puebla (city), 18n1

Puebla (state), 16, 149, 218, 219

Pyrgi, 37, 39

Quaris. See Carib

Quetzalcoatl, 72, 73, 81n25, 89, 103, 182, 197f. See also Topiltzin-Quetzalcoatl

Quiñones, Francisco de, 175

Quiñones Keber, Eloise, 165n28, 206

Quirinus, 119

Ravenna. See Baptistery of Neon

relaciones geográficas, 67

relics, 63, 71, 78, 254, 265n12

religion

comparative study of, 4–10, 27–38, 55, 66, 67, 74, 80n13, 80n17, 89–110, 122, 173–185, 185n5, 185n8, 186n18, 250, 251, 252, 264n8

concept of, 7–8, 15, 18n1, 185

and globalization, 3, 4–10, 17–18, 19n3, 143, 181

history of, 3, 18n1, 58

as an instrument of imperial domination, 17

as an instrument of resistance, 13, 14, 17, 38n10, 143–162, 266n26

invention of, 7

and monotheism, 6, 19n9, 45–46, 99

and polytheism, 5, 6, 10, 15, 19n9, 33, 34, 36, 99, 173–185, 185n5, 185n8, 186n13, 251

and social communication, 3, 7, 17–18

Remus, 62

Renaissance, 131, 161, 249, 251, 253, 260, 262n1, 264n6

repertorios de los tiempos, 16, 206–207, 212n11

repression of native culture, 162

resurrection, 16, 106, 224, 229, 232, 234, 235, 239, 240, 243

Revelation, Book of, 16, 218, 223–224, 227, 229, 232–233, 233f, 235, 239, 240–243

Rhetorica Christiana. See Valadés, Diego de

Rhine, river, 35

Ríos, Pedro de los, 212n8

Ríos Castaño, Victoria, 179

rites/rituals, 6, 10–12, 17, 19n3, 19n5, 27, 31, 32–38, 52, 59, 61–69, 71, 73–77, 78, 79n4, 80n11, 82n31, 103, 125, 133, 154, 155, 165n29, 178, 180, 206, 210, 211n3, 225, 236, 248, 249, 252, 253, 259, 261, 262, 265n14

ritual mediation, 27–38

Rollo Selden, 110n5

Roman Empire, 3–18, 18n1, 18n3, 19n3, 30–38, 46, 55, 61, 64, 91, 94, 95, 97, 99, 105, 109, 118, 120, 121, 226, 239

Roman conquests/colonization, 6, 10, 32, 36, 38, 119

Romanization, 5, 6, 19

Roman history, 65–66

Roman Senate, 33, 62, 63

Romania, 52

Romans, 6, 10, 16, 19n8, 27–38, 45–51, 58–65, 74, 180, 194

Romans, Epistle to the, 63, 136n10

Rome (city), 11, 12, 18n1, 45, 46, 60, 62, 65, 80n18, 97, 119, 120, 121, 136n4, 136n12, 137n14, 256, 258, 265n18

Romulus, 50, 62, 65

Rosmerta, 35

Rostock, 137n14

ruler cult, 33, 34, 35. See also cult of the emperor

Russia, 117

Rutilius Namatianus, 136n9

Sahagún, Bernardino de, 14–17, 20n11, 55, 56n5, 69, 74–78, 94, 101, 102, 175–184, 185n9, 185n10, 186n14, 186n18, 186n19, 193–210, 212n12, 213n14, 236, 248, 254–261, 265n17, 265n19, 266n21, 266n23. See also Códices Matritenses; Florentine Codex; Primeros Memoriales

Saint Albans. See Abbey of Saint Albans

Salamanca, 211n5. See also University of Salamanca

Salamis, Battle of, 79n5

Samnites, 62

San Juan Evangelista, Coyoacán, 73

San Pablito Pahuatlán, 149

San Pedro Cholula. See Cholula

Sánchez, Miguel, 54

sarcophagi, 16, 224f, 226–227, 230, 231, 239

Satan, 117, 120, 121, 129, 134. See also Devil

Saturn, 35, 59, 64, 65, 66f, 186n12

Saturnalia (Macrobius), 107

Savonarolism, 242

Scaurus, Marcus, 258, 265n20

Scripture. See Holy Scripture

Scythians, 12, 59, 60, 74

semasiography, 144, 153–154, 163n3, 165n34. See also visual language

Sentinum, 62

Sepúlveda, Ginés de, 74, 76, 129. See also Valladolid controversy

Sequera, Rodrigo de, 204

Serapis, 94, 104, 106, 107, 108f, 109

serpent/snake. See animals as metaphors/mantic signs

Seville, 207, 250, 263n3

sexagenarii de ponte, 60

sexuality, 12, 13, 76, 78, 126, 212

adultery, 76

homosexuality, 65

incest, 65, 76

promiscuity, 76

sexual fluids as ingredients of sacraments, 64

sodomy, 76, 128

virginity, lack of respect for, 128

Sforza, Francesco, 127

Shackamaxon, 239

singing/song, 71, 95, 145–148, 162, 163n9, 203

Sirona, 35

slaves/slavery/enslavement, 32, 48, 68, 77, 119, 134

social communication. See religion and social communication

Society of Jesus. See Jesuits

sodomy. See sexuality

Sol, 89, 90, 91, 93, 94, 95, 96–98, 104, 105–107, 108–110, 110n2, 186n12

Sol Indiges, 97

Sol Invictus, 12, 93, 101, 110

Sol of Aeneas, 97

soldiers, 35, 37, 62, 101, 121, 124f, 129–130, 250, 262. See also war/warfare/warriors

Solomonic columns, 234

soothsayers/soothsaying, 15, 194, 197, 200, 202, 204

sorcerors/sorcery, 48, 49, 194, 199

Spaniards/Spanish, 5, 6, 10, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 19n8, 30, 76, 80n21, 81n24, 89, 91, 94, 99, 101, 102, 106, 110, 122, 129–130, 134, 135, 143, 144, 152, 153, 154, 157, 158, 160, 161, 194, 204, 207, 225, 228, 238, 241, 243, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 260, 261, 262, 263n4

Spanish colonial empire, 3–6, 11–14

conquistadors, 31, 32, 127, 129, 134, 154, 160, 250, 254, 257

Spanish conquest/colonization, 6, 10, 13, 14, 17, 29, 30, 32, 65, 66, 67, 73, 76, 117–136, 148, 152, 154, 157, 158, 161, 162, 174, 180, 204, 248–249, 250, 252, 253, 255, 257, 261, 262, 265n15

spiritual conquest, 7

Spanish language. See Castilian language

Spanish National Library, Madrid, 232

Speculum Humanae Salvationis, 234

spiritual warfare, 249

Split, 117

Staden, Hans, 125–126, 132–133

stag. See animals as metaphors/mantic signs

State Library, Berlin, 158

Stephen I, King Saint, 51–53

Stone of the Sun, 96f

Strabo, 20n11

Strasbourg, 137n14

Suárez de Peralta, Juan, 66–67

Sun, 68, 69, 71, 72, 80n19, 89–110, 110n3, 110n6, 149, 150f, 154–155, 159, 164n15, 165n26, 181, 194, 195, 196, 236–237, 253, 260, 266n24. (See also Fifth Sun; Sol)

suovetaurilia procession, 50

Sybils, 239–240

syncretism, 35, 36, 92, 94, 99, 105

Syria, 36, 93, 94, 106, 107, 109

Syriacs, 94

Syrio-Palestine world, 93

Syrio-Phoenicians, 106

Tapia, Andrés de, 70

Tarascan Empire, 94

Tarascan language, 163n4

Tarascans, 94

Tarquinius Priscus, 256

Tartars, 117–118, 118f

Tartarus, 117

Tauri, 12, 60

Tecamachalco, 218, 225, 242–243

Tecoac, 148, 152, 160, 162

tecpatl, 71

Teicu, 204–205

tēīxiptlahhuān, 255, 260, 265n16

Tellus, 186n12

Temple of Jerusalem, 64, 234

Templo Mayor of Mexico Tenochtitlan, 69, 70, 77, 98, 101, 104, 183, 254

Tenayuca, 91

Tenochtitlan. See Mexico Tenochtitlan

teōātl tlahchinōlli, 149

teōcalli, 249

Teocalli of the Sacred War, 103, 104

teōcuitlatl, 255, 260, 265n15, 266n23

teōtetl, 255

Teotihuacan, 80n19, 98, 149, 150f, 154, 155, 196, 254

teōxihuitl, 255

Tepeyac, 30, 54

Tepictoton, 213n14

terra nullius, 10–11, 29–30

Tertullian, 60, 64, 65, 232, 264n10

tēteoh, 258f

Texcocans, 91

Texcoco, 6, 92, 146, 149, 155, 164n23, 165n26

tezcatetl, 17, 261

Tezcatlipoca, 74, 102, 103, 182, 205–206, 205f, 255, 256f, 260, 265n16, 266n24

Tezcatzoncatl, 182

Tharros, 80n11

Theodosius, 6, 13, 120, 121

theophagy, 12, 75, 78, 81n30

Theophrastus, 63

theosis, 71

Thessalonians, Epistle to the, 136n8, 229

Thevet, André, 133

third space, 14

Tiacapan, 204–205

Tiber, river, 60

Tiberius, 61, 65

Timotheus, 258, 266n20

Tlacopan, 6, 92, 149

Tlacu, 204–205

tlahtoāni, 82n31, 103

Tlaloc, 69, 93, 94, 98, 104, 105, 183–184, 198f, 255, 256f, 265n16

Tlaloc Tlamacazqui, 182

Tlatelolco, 177

Colegio Imperial de la Santa Cruz, 175, 206

Convent at, 201–202

tlatoani. See tlahtoāni

Tlaxcala (city/town), 148, 156, 160, 263

Tlaxcala (province), 14, 143, 144, 148, 151, 153, 157, 159, 162, 165n28

Tlaxcala (state), 149

Tlaxcalan confederacy, 94, 148, 149, 151

Tlaxcalans, 129

Tlazolteotl, 182, 204

Toci, 59

tōltēcāyōtl, 254, 265n12

Toltecs, 91, 92, 99, 102, 252, 254

tōna, 72

tōnalpōhualli, 16, 100, 197f, 199–206, 212n8, 212n11. See also calendars

tōnalpōuhqueh, 196, 199, 201, 204, 206

Tonantzin, 11, 30, 54–55, 56n5, 93, 94

Tonatiuh, 100, 101, 103, 110n3, 196

Tonatiuh Ichan, 101

tophet, 65, 80n11

Topiltzin-Quetzalcoatl, 98, 102

Torquemada, Juan de, 15, 94, 175–176, 180–185, 186n15, 186n16

Tower of Babel, 181

Transylvania, 51, 53

Triple Alliance (Mexico Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan), 6, 92, 94, 149, 155. See also Aztec Empire

Trojans, 37

Tuisto, 62

Tula, 102

Tupinambá, 125–126, 132–133

turkeys, 160

Turks, 137n27

tzacualli, 249, 251

tzompantli, 80n21. See also Huēi Tzompantli

Ukraine, 117

Umbría, Gonzalo de, 70

University of Guanajuato, 18n1

University of London, 18n1

University of Salamanca, 194

Vaccaei, 71

Valadés, Diego de, 228–229

Valencia, Martín de, 175, 241, 242

Valerian, 63

Valladolid controversy (between Bartolomé de Las Casas and Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda), 129

Valley of Mexico, 149, 152, 153, 155, 157, 162, 164n25, 252

Varro, 15, 97, 178–180, 182, 186n12

Vasari, Giorgio, 249, 259–261, 266n22

Venezuela, 127

Venice, 137n14

Venus (deity), 182, 186n12, 258, 265n20

Venus (planet), 196

Veracruz, 152, 160

Verona. See Villa della Torre, Mezzane di Sotto

Verulamium, 62

Vespucci, Amerigo, 122–124, 124f, 130–133, 131f, 132f, 133f, 137n27, 137–138n29

Vesta, 186n12

Villa della Torre, Mezzane di Sotto, Verona, 75

Villagutierre, Juan de, 81n24

Virgil, 97, 119, 194, 240. See also Eclogue 4

virgin birth in Aztec mythology, 102

Virgin Mary. See Mary

Virgen of Guadalupe. See Guadalupe, Our Lady of

virginity. See sexuality

virgins, sacrifice of. See human sacrifice: parthenos/virgins

visual language, 13, 144, 147, 148, 149, 162. See also semasiography

Vitruvius, 234

Vulcan, 59, 182, 186n12

Vulgate, 223

war/warfare/warriors, 8, 13, 14, 28, 31, 67, 68, 71, 72, 74, 79n5, 80n19, 80n20, 81n31, 101, 103–105, 109, 110n6, 117–136, 151–152, 151f, 153, 160, 183, 235, 237, 240, 249. See also xōchiyāōyōtl

warlocks, 199

warrior-demon, 121

Welsers, 137n16

White, Richard, 10, 28–31, 36, 38n3. See also The Middle Ground

witches, 80n10, 199

wolf. See animals as metaphors/mantic signs

writing, 14, 31, 91, 144–148, 158. See also alphabet; glottography; graphic communication; semasiography

Etruscan, 37

Punic, 37

xenophobia, 64, 136n1

Ximénez, Francisco, 91

Xipe Totec, 255, 265n14

Xiuhteuctli, 182

xōchiyāōyōtl / flowery wars / flower war, 68, 236–237

Xoxoteco, chapel murals, 75

Xuco, 204–205

Yacateuctli, 73. See also Iyacateuctli

Yahualyocan, 159

Yahweh, 120

Yale University Library, New Haven, 234

Yama, 62

Yaomahuitl, 205–206

Yaotl, 205–206

Yarhibôl, 93

Ymir, 62

Yucatán Peninsula, 252

Yucatecan language, 163n4, 212n10, 263n2

Zacateotlan, 159

Zapotec language, 163n4

Zeus, 36, 65, 79n4, 108, 110n2

Zopito, 50–51

Zosimus, 211n2

Zumárraga, Juan de, 175

Contributors