Index
Page numbers in italic indicate illustrations.
abandonment, 15; of Oneota tradition areas, 271–72. See also buffer zones; unoccupied zones
aboriginal crayon drawings, 38
accoutrements, depictions of, 82–90. See also face paint; headgear, headdresses; hairstyles
adoption, of captives, 41
age, and scalping patterns, 32, 322, 323–28
age-grade societies, Arikara, 330
agricultural societies, 245. See also horticultural villages
Alcova Redoubt, 237, 241, 258, 263, 264; bastions at, 254–55; dates of, 250–53; as fortification, 253–54; Shoshone and, 261–62; wall systems at, 246–50; weapons at, 255–57
Algonkian (Algonquian) speakers, 163, 273
Alkali Statin, 346
alliances, 27–28, 131, 273, 293, 300; Middle Missouri, 299, 301, 314–15
American Bottom, Oneota in, 270, 272
Americans. See Euroamericans
Andrews Lake, 15
animal pelts, 100; depictions of, 71, 88–89
animal tails, depictions of, 71, 85, 86, 87
Annis Village, fortifications at, 159, 173, 174
Anoka phase, 297
ANOVA tests, of Crow Creek scalping patterns, 323–29
Antelope Creek sites, 18, 19, 26
Apaches, 16, 203, 233, 234, 235, 260
Apple River, Oneota on, 271
Arapaho, 50, 56, 57, 260, 337, 342
archaeological record, 361; evidence in, 6, 267–68
architecture. See defense(s), defensive architecture; fortifications
Arikara, 18, 27, 28, 172, 299, 330; attacks on, 120, 133; trade networks, 289–91, 292; women’s roles, 331, 332–33. See also Crow Creek village
Arkansas, 26
Arkansas River, 234; and Etzanoa, 197–98, 199; Late Prehistoric consolidation, 232–33; Wichita villages on, 200–206, 212, 216
armor: depictions of, 38, 42, 46; horse, 47–48, 50, 51, 52–54, 56, 63, 103, 111, 126–27, 128
arms. See weapons
arrows: depictions of, 40, 44, 46, 47, 95; wounds caused by, 11–12, 13, 15, 29, 159, 271
artifact distribution, at battlefield sites, 349–50; in ditches, 184–85
Athabaskan/Athapaskan speakers, 26, 259
Atherton Canyon site, 115, 117–18(n1); arms and accoutrements at, 70–82; battle scenes at, 91–96; dress at, 82–90; warriors at, 68–70, 87, 90–91, 106–10, 118(n4), 119(n10)
atlatls, rock art depictions of, 12, 47, 64
attackers, vs. defenders, 194–96
attacks, 42, 120, 135; on Crow Creek village, 206–8; on fortified sites, 145–47, 194–96; triggers for, 28–29; on Wichita villages, 202, 203, 211, 213, 214–15; in winter counts, 128, 137–38
Austin phase, cemeteries, 11–12
autobiographies, warrior-art tradition as, 122–23
Avonlea points, 258–59
Avonlea site, 259
Aztalan, 269
Bad-Cheyenne division, 301; settlement pattern in, 306, 307, 309, 312, 314
Bad Heart Bull, Amos, Lakota Victory Dance, 127
baffle gates, 8, 9, 15, 176, 244, 359
Bahm mound, 11
Ballard carbines, 339
Barnwell, John, 146
barriers, in villages, 150, 154
bastions, 8, 9, 15, 20, 154, 155, 156, 176, 179, 218, 242, 244, 359; at Alcova Redoubt, 254–55; Middle Missouri sites, 169, 171, 180, 183, 277, 280; Mississippian sites, 158, 159
battlefields, 6, 19, 33, 152; Mud Springs and Rush Creek, 339, 349–51, 352, 353
battle formations, 33, 115–16, 277; rock-art depictions of, 12, 13, 71, 75
battles, 57, 120, 164; Crow-Blackfeet, 6, 62; descriptions of, 101–3; Pierre’s Hole, 257–58; rock art depictions of, 91–96, 115; in winter counts, 128, 129, 131–32, 135–36
battle scenes, in rock art, 42, 44, 45, 51, 52, 57, 58, 70, 109–10, 115
Bear Coming Out, 80
Bear Gulch site (24FR2), 45, 55, 115; arms and accoutrements depicted at, 70–82; battle scenes at, 91–96; dress depicted at, 82–90; V-neck warriors at, 98–99, 117, 119(n10); war parties in, 106–10; warriors and weapons depicted on, 67, 68–70, 90–91, 118(n4); shield warriors at, 49, 87, 109
bears, on shields, 80
Bear’s Arm, 115
bears ears headdresses, 85
Benick Ranch site, 11
Berlandier, Jean Louis, 213, 215
Besant points, 12
Bethune burial, 11
Big Bend division/region, 171, 301; settlement pattern in, 306–7, 309, 312, 314
Big Foot, 122
Big Goose Creek site, 260
Big Horn Basin, 62
Bighorn-sheep traps, clubs used at, 76, 79
Big Sioux River, Oneota on, 272
bioarchaeology, 318. See also osteological evidence
biographic art, 104–5, 106; historic period, 116–17
bird bundles, depictions of, 88, 89
Bird Rattle, 58
bison, 5–6, 18, 21, 50; hide/robe trade, 212, 234, 235, 288; tails of, 85, 86, 87
bison hunting, 22, 126, 132–33, 197, 203, 233, 261, 284; fortified sites, 208–9; trade and, 234, 235
Blackfeet, 38, 50, 56, 62, 84, 260; and V-neck warriors, 98–99
Blackfoot, 6, 50, 60; warrior depictions, 68–69, 98–99, 119(n10); winter counts, 123, 128, 132, 135–40
Black Hills, 337; rock art in, 127, 133
Black Kettle, 337
Blasky mound, 11
blockades, trade, 289
Blood, on Musselshell River, 50, 54
Blood Run site complex, 272
Blue Earth area, Oneota in, 272
bodies, 10; dismembered, 15, 16, 24. See also skeletons
Bodmer, Karl, 37; illustrations by, 77, 87, 90, 118(n5)
Bold Counselor phase, 269–70
bone-chemistry analysis, 18
bones, 7–8; isolated, 25. See also osteological evidence; skeletons
bonnets: bison-horn, 101; war, 99
boundaries/borders, ethnic and cultural, 26, 356
Boundary Mound, 10
bowmen, at Bear Gulch site, 71, 118(n4)
bows, 5, 40, 171; rock art depictions of, 12, 38, 47, 71
bows and arrows, 40, 64, 72, 100, 127, 157, 164; at Alcova Redoubt, 256–57; and palisade construction, 158–59; rock art depictions, 38, 47, 71, 96, 118(n4), 125
bow-spears: decoration of, 90, 91; depictions of, 77–79, 80, 97–98, 118(n6)
brave deeds, 99; records of, 121–22
breastworks, 257
Bridwell site (41CB27), 231
Brule, 17
Bruner Ranch, 128
Bryson-Paddock site (34KA5), 193, 209, 218, 212, 234, 235; defensible location of, 200–201; ditches at, 211, 219–24, 231; fortification at, 202, 203, 204, 205–6, 216; semi-subterranean structure at, 224–27, 228–30
Buffalobird-woman, 172
buffer zones, 27; Central Mississippi River valley, 272–73; Middle Missouri, 168, 169–70, 298–99, 307, 309
burials, 7, 10, 11–12, 162. See also massacres; skeletons
Bushman, social structure, 357–58
Caddoan speakers, 25, 26, 27, 145, 149, 169, 170, 273
Cahokia, 30, 32, 169, 173, 270
Calumet of the Captain Ceremony, 300
camps, Cheyenne, 342–43
canals, at Mississippian sites, 161
Cannibal House site, 270
cannibalism, 14
Cannonball division, 301; settlement pattern in, 306, 309, 312, 314
captives, capturing, 4, 18, 103, 116, 120, 134–35, 145; depictions of, 46, 86; in winter counts, 133, 140; women, 41, 42, 43, 55–57, 99
Carboni site (24CB404), 44
cartridges, at battlefield sites, 339
Castile Landing site, 161
Castle Butte site, 69, 113, 114
Castle Gardens site, 67, 69, 86
casualties, 103; in winter counts, 129, 138–40
Catlin, George, 215; illustrations by, 77, 87
Cattle Oiler site, 180
cavalry: Plains Indian light, 345; US regiments, 347–49
Cayuga Lake, reconstructed village at, 166
cedar, 174
celebration, of warfare, 41–42, 43
celt wounds, at Crow Creek Village, 271
Central Plains tradition, 32, 270, 271, 297, 359; ceramics, 259–60
ceramics, 18; at Alcove Redoubt, 251, 253; Late Prehistoric, 259–60; at Middle Missouri sites, 26, 27, 32, 300
ceremonial-tradition rock art, 12–13, 29; shield-bearing and V-neck warriors in, 66–67
Champlain, Samuel de, 164, 165–66
charnel houses, burning of, 269
Cherokees, attacks on Tawakoni by, 214–15
chevaux-de-frise obstacles, 170, 282
Cheyenne, 19, 57, 234, 260, 291; attacks by, 337–38; battles with US military, 32–33, 349–51; camp organization, 342–43; military societies, 343–45
Chickasaw, 215
chiefly militias, 154
children, 133, 145; as captives, 99, 116, 134–35; scalping of, 331–32
China, Warring States period, 194
Civil War, US frontier army, 345–49
clans, Middle Missouri, 299
climate changes, 163; Middle Missouri, 167–68, 169, 179
clubs, 40, 79, 157, 158, 159, 164; rock art depictions of, 12, 29, 64, 72, 76, 77, 78, 97, 125
Coalescent tradition, 15, 16, 26, 169, 298, 300; migration, 295, 297; trade networks, 284, 293–94
cobbles, as weapons, 255–56
Colorado, Ceremonial-tradition rock art, 12
Colorado Volunteers, 337
Comanches, 18, 20, 24, 203, 213, 215, 234, 260, 261, 356
combat, 4, 277; hand-to-hand, 7, 96, 102, 117, 164; preparation for, 336–37; ranks of warriors in, 115–16; rock-art depictions of, 12, 70, 93–94, 95, 96, 98–99, 106–9, 112, 113, 114, 126
communities: fortified, 6, 16; planned, 170–71
competition: for Euroamerican resources, 17–18; resource, 22, 169; trade, 289–90
confederations, 299
conflicts, 131, 197, 274, 316; archaeological studies of, 3–4; interpolity, 156–57; intracultural, 190–91; Late Prehistoric, 262–63; scenes of, 40; trade-related, 290–92; in winter counts, 128–30, 135–40
Congressional Medals of Honor, for Wounded Knee massacre, 121
conical lodges, depictions of, 58–59
consolidation: Oneota tradition, 271–73; of southern Plains villages, 232–33
constricted/complex entrances, 159, 167
Contact period, 9, 16–17, 18–19, 24; rock-art depictions, 13, 37–38, 54
Cooke, Philip, 348
Cooper, Douglas, 215
corn caches, Arikara, 133
Coronado expedition, 16, 197, 232
corporate action, pre-contact warfare as, 103, 109, 112, 117
cottonwood (Populus deltoides), in Middle Missouri villages, 171–72, 174
Cottonwood station (Fort McPherson), 346
Cottonwood Triangular points, 250, 258, 259
counting coup, 103, 116, 139; with bow-spears, 97–98; depictions of, 13, 41, 43, 55, 59–60, 62, 93, 94, 95, 96, 99, 105–6, 114, 121, 129, 132
craft production, specialized, 284
crania, scalping patterns, 322–28, 331–32. See also skulls
Crawford Lake village, 166
Cree, on Musselshell River, 50, 54
Crenshaw site, 26
Crow, 6, 38, 41, 46, 56, 57, 60, 62, 118–19(nn7, 11), 132, 257, 260; on Musselshell River, 50, 55, 63
Crow Creek Sioux Tribe, 322
Crow Creek village, 15–16, 28, 180, 182, 197, 239; attack on, 206–8; massacre at, 121, 133, 135, 145–46, 169, 186, 206–7, 271, 295–96, 315, 316; radiocarbon dates, 22–23; scalping patterns at, 32, 320–21, 322–32
culture change, 274; archaeological evidence of, 267–68
curtain walls, 155–56, 242, 243
Dakota, winter counts, 123, 130, 131
Daly Petroglyphs (48CA58), 60–61, 62
darts, depictions of, 12
deaths, 5; Protohistoric, 240–41; in winter counts, 129, 138–40. See also massacres
decapitation, 271, 319; depictions of, 60–62; Woodland period, 10, 11
Deer Creek site (34KA3), 200, 201, 202, 203, 205, 209, 212, 234, 235; fortifications, 204, 216, 217–18, 219
Deer Medicine Rocks (24RB401), 59
defeats, 5, rock-art depictions of, 58
defenders, vs. attackers, 194–96
defense(s), defensive architecture, 5, 6, 15, 151, 153, 175–76, 178–79, 240, 244–45, 257; construction and maintenance of, 19–20, 30–31, 149, 150; features of, 8–9, 154–56; Mississippian, 157–63. See also by type
deforestation, palisade construction and, 174
dehumanization, trophy-taking as, 330–31
demographics, 5, 7, 241, 276, 292; of Crow Creek victims, 322, 323–28
Denver, 346
Desert Side-Notch (DSN) points, 258, 259
DeSmet, Pierre-Jean, on bison-hide paintings, 121–22
Des Moines River, Oneota tradition, 271
Devil’s Canyon, Wichita village at, 215–16
diet, captives and, 18
Dillard site, 15
Dinwoody sites, 47
disease, 299; epidemic, 116, 134–35, 202, 203, 205, 234, 273
disembodied capture hands, in rock art, 86, 99, 105
ditches, 8, 9, 15, 20, 30, 145, 148, 150, 154, 157, 163, 215, 231, 242, 359; artifact distribution in, 184–85; at Bryson-Paddock site, 211, 219–30; Deer Creek site, 217–18; defensive, 178–79, 180–81, 277; Middle Missouri sites, 169, 181–84, 187, 188–89; Mississippian sites, 158, 159, 160; Neodesha Fort sites, 216–17; purpose of, 177–78; V-shaped, 155, 156, 176. See also trenches
documents, 37–38, 121; indigenous, 124–25
Dodd site, 182
Dog Soldier Society, 343
Donck, Adriaen van der, 165
Double Ditch site (32BL8), 180, 193
dress, rock art depictions of, 82–90
drought, 23, 24; Middle Missouri, 167, 179, 286; and resource competition, 22, 163
DSN. See Desert Side-Notch points
Dull Knife, 19
Duncan site (34WA2), 208, 231, 232; as trade center, 233–34
Dutisné, Claude Charles, 216
earthlodges, useful life of, 171
earthlodge villages, 270; attacks on, 120, 129; as planned communities, 170–71; timber used in, 171–72
earthworks, 153, 154, 272; vs. fortifications, 188–89; on Middle Missouri, 180–84
Eastern Woodlands, self-bow, 158–59
Eastman, Charles and Mary, 121
East St. Louis site, 270
Eaton site, 165
EC. See Extended Coalescent tradition
economy, 17–18, 24, 119(n12). See also trade, trade networks
Edwards I site (34BK2), 208, 231, 232
egalitarian groups, violence, 238–39
Eleventh Ohio Volunteer Cavalry, 338
Ellsworth, Richard, 338
embankments, 154, 156; at Mississippian sites, 158, 159, 160
EMM. See Extended Middle Missouri villages
enclosures: protective, 154–55; ritual, 153
enemies, 120, 130, 290, 294, 316; identifying, 26–27; rock art depictions of, 62, 133; on southern Plains, 197, 202, 203
English, trade, 290
epidemics, 116, 134–35, 273, 299; among Wichita, 202, 203, 234
Erie, ancestral, 165
ethnic warfare, 295–96, 315–16
ethnography, ethnohistory, 54, 123, 147, 164, 300; and rock art, 37–38, 104–6; of warfare, 101–2, 268, 286–87
Etowah, 174
Euroamericans, 21, 116, 121, 146, 212; economy and violence, 17–18; in Montana, 38, 54
Europeans, 234; Middle Missouri trade, 287–88, 290; written observations by, 16–17
Evans, John T., 289
evil activities, depicted in rock art, 47
expeditions, of small war parties, 136–37
experimental archaeology, 165
Extended Coalescent (EC) tradition, 273, 296, 312
Extended Middle Missouri (EMM) villages, 169, 207–8, 296–97, 295, 307, 315, 316
face paint, rock-art depictions of, 81, 88
falcon-warrior imagery, 25
families, Middle Missouri villages, 299
farmers, farming, 6, 13, 163, 190; fortified sties, 26–27, 145; Middle Missouri, 15–16, 167; war and status, 24–25; Wichita, 199–200, 205
Fay Tolton site (39ST11), 14, 20, 25, 168, 316; ditch at, 182, 183; skeletal trauma at, 186–87
fear, of Other, 179
feathers, 84; in bustles, 85–87, 100; in flags, 90–91, 98
feet, removal of, 12, 24, 271, 321
females, scalping patterns, 322–30, 333–34
fending sticks, depictions of, 40
Fetterman fight, 129
feuding, Middle Missouri villages, 168
fighting postures, in rock art, 37, 41, 42
fighting units, depictions of, 91–92, 100–101, 106–10
Fire Heart Creek site, 180
Five Guys Petroglyph (24ML394), 51
flags: feather, 90–91; weapon, 99
flaked stone, Iroquoian sites, 165
flanked designs, in fortified villages, 148
floods, earthworks and, 184
fluffs, feather or hair, 91, 98
Footprint site, 15
foragers. See hunter-gatherers
force projection bases, 347
forces: size and power of, 194–96, 206–7; in Southern Plains interactions, 203, 204, 209
Fordville mound, 11
Fort Clark (Mitu’tahato’s), 291
Fort Frontenac, scurvy at, 146–47
fortifications, fortified sites, 6, 8–9, 10, 14, 17, 19–20, 145, 175–76, 190, 191, 242, 359; construction and maintenance of, 30–31, 147–48, 149, 172–73, 193; defensive, 5, 179; with ditches, 181–84; in eastern North America, 153–54; features of, 154–56, 243–45; increased building of, 156–57; Iroquois, 163–67; landforms and, 151–52; Middle Missouri region, 15, 34, 277–78, 280–83, 306–7, 309, 312, 314–15, 316, 317; military and political power, 152–53, 194–96; Mississippian, 25, 157–63; Plains Village, 16, 167–72; purposes of, 192–93; of seasonal camps, 208–9; sieges of, 146–47, 257–58; social and economic conditions, 245–46; social structure and, 149–50; on southern Plains, 231–33, 235; trade networks and, 285–86; Wichita, 200–206, 211–16. See also refuge sites
Fort Laramie (Wyo.), 346; troops from, 337, 338–39
Fort McPherson (Cottonwood), 346
Fort Mitchell (Nebr.), 346; troops from, 337, 338–39
Fort Musselshell, 55, 60; captive women at, 56–57
Fort Randall division, 301; settlement pattern in, 306, 307, 309, 312
Fort Robinson, Dull Knife’s escape from, 19
Fortune site, 161
fox pelts, depictions of, 88
French, 165, 216, 290; bison hide trade, 212, 235; on southern Plains, 202, 203, 234
fur trade, 18, 38, 273, 288, 289
gambling, on Musselshell River, 54
games, competitive, 40
Garcia, Andrew, 64; on Musselshell tribes, 54, 55
Garza phase, 231
gates, gateways, 154, 158, 167, 242, 244
Gebusi, 239
gender, scalping patterns and, 32
genocide, intervillage, 163
Glenwood sites, 32
Goffena site (24ML408), 51, 52
Good, Battiste, winter count of, 126
Gore Pit site, 10
Grand-Moreau division, 301; settlement pattern in, 307, 309, 312, 314
Grapevine Creek site, 243, 257
Grass Dance, 41
Grattan fight, 129
Gray Burial site, 10
Great Basin, Numic speakers from, 259
Great Bend aspect communities, 16, 232
Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE), Shoshone materials in, 261
Great Oasis groups, 13
Great Osage groups, and Wichita, 202, 203
Great Platte River Road, 346
Gros Ventre, 76; on Musselshell River, 50, 54, 56–57
group identity, 149
Groves phase, 270
guns, 38, 287; depictions of, 40, 43, 47, 51, 127; on southern Plains, 203–4, 234; in warfare, 64, 103–4
Hadza, 239
hairstyles, 333; rock art depictions, 82, 84–85
Hand of God motif, 118–19(n7); on shields, 80–81, 87
handprints, in rock art, 46
hands: disembodied capture, 86, 99; removal/taking of, 12, 24, 46, 271, 321
Hanging Valley site, 10
hats, in rock art depictions, 38
head gear, headdresses, depictions of, 52, 66, 82, 84–85, 101
heads: severed, 46, 60–62, 126, 269
Heart River sites, 279, 293; fortifications, 280, 282–83; trade, 284, 285–86, 292
heraldic designs, on shields, 66, 67, 80–81, 116
Hewlett South site (48CK1544), 61
Hidatsa, 28, 41, 102–3, 118–19(n7), 299; trade, 289, 290–91
Hidatsa-Crow, Spring Boy and Lodge Boy myth, 61
hide/bison robe paintings [bison hide paintings], 93, 120, 121–22, 123
High Rise Village, 251
Historia (Obregon), on Pecos, 16–17
Historic period, 76, 84, 85, 92, 99; biographic art, 116–17; combat scenes, 110, 113, 114; warfare, 101–2, 119(n12)
history, 32; Lakota, 123–24. See also oral histories/narratives
Hiwassee Island site, 173
Ho-Chunk, 130
home stations, US Army, 346–47
homicides, hunter-gatherer, 238–39
honors, earned, 99–100
Hopewell culture, 10
horned headdresses, 52
Horned Headgear site (24ML508), 52, 63
horse bonnet, 52
horses: armored, 17, 38, 47–48, 50, 51, 52–54, 56, 63, 64, 103, 110–14, 128, 287, 290, 348; in battle scenes, 45, 46; introduction of, 260–61; rock-art depictions, 12, 37, 43, 45, 84, 126–27; on southern Plains, 204, 234
horse stealing/raiding, 17, 46, 54, 55, 120, 135, 137; depictions of, 42, 114, 132
horticultural villages, 13, 14, 120; Middle Missouri, 27, 34, 169–71
horticulture, appearance of, 22
Hot Dance, 41
hot-rock cooking, 22
Howard, James, 123
howitzers, mountain, 352
Hueco (Waco) subdivision, 212, 213
hunter-gatherers, 3, 6, 24, 163, 190, 237, 284, 360; fortified villages, 16, 26–27, 168, 170, 208–9; small-scale, 357–58; subsistence production, 21–22; violence, 238–40
hunting, 40, 47; bison, 22, 126, 132–33, 197, 203, 233, 234, 235, 261
hunting territories, competition for, 18, 120, 132–33
Huron Confederacy, 146
Huronia village, 166
Hyde, George, 123
IC. See Initial Coalescent sites
Illinois (people), 203
Illinois (state), Oneota, 273
Illinois River valley, Oneota, 269–70, 271
IMM. See Initial Middle Missouri sites
immigration, immigrants. See migration
Indiana, Oneota in, 271
Initial Coalescent (IC) sites, 279, 296, 297; Crow Creek village at, 206–7; fortifications, 154, 169, 170; in Middle Missouri, 309, 315; Oneota expansion, 270–71; warfare, 280, 316
Initial Middle Missouri (IMM) sites, 32, 168–69, 279, 280, 293, 295, 296, 297; settlement pattern in, 307, 315; trade network, 283–84, 285–86, 292
injuries, 6, 8, 10, 19, 46; in Late Prehistoric skeletons, 240–41; traumatic, 159, 321
intimidation, fortifications as, 192
Iowa, 9, 11, 15, 279, 296; Oneota in, 270, 271, 273; Plains Village groups on, 13, 14; trade networks, 32, 283–84
Ioway Tribe, 273
Iroquois, Iroquois League, 146, 148, 273, 278; fortification systems, 149, 163–67
Itskari/Loup River phase, 259–60
Jamestown mound, 11
Jebel Sahaba cemetery, 239
Jiggs Thompson site, 281
Joliet site (24CB402), 41
Julesburg, attack on, 337, 345
Juniperus virginiana, 174
Kansas, 12, 14, 16, 211, 216, 270; Contact period conflict in, 197–98; Late Prehistoric period, 232–33
KDEs. See kernel density estimates
Kelley, William Fitch, 121
Kelly, Yellowstone, 49–50, 58, 60
Kennewick man, 10
kernel density estimates (KDEs), 305; Middle Missouri, 306–13, 314; univariate and bivariate, 303–4
Ketchen Village, 315
kinship systems, 288, 299, 300
Knife River, 291
Knife River flint, trade networks for, 283–84
knowledge, 336; of fortification construction and maintenance, 147–48
Koch, Peter, 257
!Kung, 239
Kutenai, 132
La Barge Bluffs site (48LN1640), 41, 42, 69, 110, 113
labor, 5, 22; fortifications, 193, 280; palisade construction, 173–74
La Crosse terrace, 273
Lakota, 24, 27, 28, 118–19(n7), 127, 337, 342, 356; history, 123–24; Pawnee attacks on, 134–35; winter counts, 120, 128, 130, 131, 132–33, 135–40
lances: depictions of, 29, 40, 47, 48, 52, 72, 90, 97, 98, 127
landforms, 5; defensible, 6, 155, 200–201; fortified, 151–52, 246–50, 257
Larson site, 18, 120, 269; massacre at, 133, 135, 139
Late Prehistoric I period, 9, 14
Late Prehistoric period, 15, 104, 117, 190, 232; accoutrements, 85–91; battle depictions, 91–96, 100–101, 106; ceramics, 259–60; conflict during, 262–63; counting coup in, 105–6; headdresses and hairstyles, 82–85; offensive weapons, 71–79; projectile points, 250–51; rock art, 67, 69–70, 115; shields, 79–82; skeletal trauma, 240–41; war party sizes, 109–10; in Wyoming region, 240, 258–59
Late Woodland period, 10, 12, 13, 14, 22, 26, 269, 284; interpersonal violence, 11, 157; Middle Missouri and, 296, 297, 316
Lawson village, 166
Leary site, 272
ledger-book drawings, 98, 120, 121, 122, 123, 127, 132, 135, 276
Leonard, Zenas, 6, 62, 64; on Pierre’s Hole battle, 257–58; on war and social status, 57–58
Le Raye, 291
Levels of War model, 340–41, 354; for Cheyenne and other tribes, 342–45, 351; for US frontier army, 345–49
Lewis and Clark, 289
Like-a-Fishhook Village, 291
Lipan Apache, 235
Little Big Horn battlefield, 19
Little River focus, 232
Little Sioux River, 14
Lodge Boy, 61
Loeve-Fox site, 11–12
Longest site (34JF1), 201, 202, 204, 218, 235; fortifications at, 213, 219, 220–21, 223, 224, 228, 230; subterranean structures, 214, 226–27
Longwoods village, 166
lookouts, women as, 57
Louisiana, fortifications in, 153
Loup River/Itskari phase, 259–60
Lower Mississippi Valley, 153
Lower St. Francis Basin, 161
Lower Walnut focus, 199, 209, 232
maces: rock art depictions of, 115, 125; spike, 72–76, 97, 115
Mackenzie, Charles, 291
magnetometer/gradiometer survey, Bryson-Paddock site, 218, 220, 227–28, 229, 230, 231
maize agriculture, 22
Making of Relations/Relatives rites, 300, 358
males: scalping patterns, 322–30, 333–34; status, 24, 25
malnutrition: at Crow Creek site, 23, 28, 186; at fortified sites, 146–47
Mandan, 28, 85, 90, 118–19(n7), 123, 139, 170, 184, 287, 299; trade networks, 289, 291
mandibles, 10, 12, 26; traumatic injuries on, 321, 334
Manitoba, burial in, 10
Manuel Lisa site (24YL82), decapitations depicted at, 61–62
manuports, at Alcova Redoubt, 256
Massacre Canyon (Nebraska), 17
massacres, 17, 133–34, 135, 270; Crow Creek, 16, 22–23, 145–46, 169, 206, 271, 295–96, 315, 316, 321, 334; in winter counts, 139–40; Wounded Knee, 121, 122
mass graves, 28. See also massacres
MAUP. See Modifiable Areal Unit Problem
maxillas, worked, 10
Maximilian, Prince, 37, 100, 291
Mbuti, 239
McCoy, Ron, winter counts, 123–24
McCutchan-McLaughlin site, 12, 28
measles, 202
medicine bundles, 100; rock-art depictions of, 88–89
Medicine Creek Cave (48CK48), 61
Medicine Lodge Creek site, 260
memories, 149
men: and Cheyenne military societies, 343–45; Crow Creek scalping patterns, 322–30
Menoken site, 26
Metis, 133
Michigan, Oneota in, 273
Michigan, Lake, Oneota tradition and, 272, 273
middens, at Mississippian sites, 160–61
Middle Archaic sites, 10
Middle Mississippian period, 269
Middle Missouri-Coalescent, 149
Middle Missouri region, 9, 19, 21, 22, 23, 34, 275, 317, 359; alliances on, 27–28; attacks in, 129, 206–8; chronology and interaction, 297–98; climate changes on, 179–80; collective violence in, 276–77; ditches on, 180–85; ethnic warfare, 295–96; fortified sites, 15, 18, 20, 26–27, 66, 154, 167–72, 277–78, 280–83; intervillage alliances, 314–15; Plains Village settlements, 13–14; population movements in, 187–88, 296; settlement clusters, 293, 298–300, 301, 304–13; skeletal trauma in, 185–87; trade networks, 32, 179, 283–84, 287–88; undefended settlements, 278–79; unoccupied zones in, 315–16
Middle Woodland period, 10–11, 153
migration, 24, 218, 233; Middle Missouri region, 188, 280, 287–88, 295, 296, 297, 315
military power, and fortifications, 152–53
military science, 340
military societies: Cheyenne, 343–45; tactics, 353–54
military tactics/operations, 103, 158, 287; force levels, 194–96; Plains Indian, 342–45, 353–54; US cavalry, 340–42; 348–49, 351–52
militias, chiefly, 154
Minnesota, 296; Oneota tradition in, 269, 271, 272
Mississippian culture, 25, 149, 269; defensive systems, 157–63; fortified towns, 153, 154, 283; St. Francis type sites, 160–61
Mississippi River valley, buffer zones in, 272
Missouri, Oneota in, 270
Missouria, 273
Missouri River, 10, 14, 289; farmers on, 13, 15–16; settlement distribution, 23–24
Missouri Trench, 242. See also Middle Missouri region
Mitu’tahato’s (Fort Clark), 291
mnemonics, winter counts as, 124
moats, 157
mobility, 234, 240, 253; camp logistics, 342–43
moccasin tails, 99; rock-art depictions of, 89–90
Modifiable Areal Unit Problem (MAUP), 302
Mohawk/Mohican villages, 165
Molstad Village (39DW234), 184–85
Montana, 38, 259; decapitation depictions in, 61–62; rock art sites in, 46–48, 64, 65. See also various regions, sites by name
Mooney, James, 121
Moorehead phase, 270
Morning Star Ceremony, 134–35
mortality rates, Mississippian, 159
motives, for warfare, 131–35
Mound Bottom site, 158
Mud Springs Station, as battlefield site, 337, 338, 339, 349–51, 353
Mummy Cave, 251
Musselshell River, 38, 39; armored horses depicted on, 47–48; environment, 48–50; rock art on, 51–54, 63–64; tribal interactions on, 54–62; tribes on, 50–51
Musselshell site (24ML1049), 52
mutilations, 8; evidence of, 15, 24–25, 32, 271, 319, 334. See also by type
mythology, 61
Nagle site, 28
narratives, recorded, 122–23
Nearest neighbor (NN) analysis, 302–3, 304, 305(table), 314
Nebraska, 14, 17, 32; Oneota groups, 15, 270, 272
Neodesha Fort (14WN1), 216–17, 232, 234
Newark site, 153
New Mexico, and Wichita villages, 202
New York, Iroquoian sites, 165
New Zealand, pa fortifications in, 194
NN. See nearest neighbor analysis
nomadic groups, refuges and, 242–43
Nordstrom Bowen site (24 YL419), 47, 69, 92
Norris Farms site, 269
North Cave Hill site, 69, 74, 81, 112, 115, 127, 128, 129, 132, 134
North Dakota, 279, 312. See also Middle Missouri region
Northern Plains, 154, 190. See also Middle Missouri region
Northern Shoshone, 41
North Platte River Valley, 132, 262; Indian-US military fights in, 337–39
North West Company, 289
No Water Petroglyph site (48WA2066), 44, 55, 69, 113
Numic speakers, 259
Nuptadi, 134
Obion site, 158
Obregon, Baltasar de, Historia, 16–17
Oglala (Ogallala) Lakota, 17; Making of Relations/Relatives rites, 300, 358; winter counts, 123, 128, 135–40
Ojibwa, 290
Oklahoma, 10, 11, 12, 15, 18, 25, 208, 233; fortified sites, 211, 212, 213–14, 231; Wichita villages in, 215–16
Omaha, fur trade, 289
Oñate expedition, 197, 198, 199, 232
Oneota tradition, 26, 208, 269; consolidation of, 271–73; expansion of, 31, 270–71; migrations of, 15, 24, 27, 169
operations, military, 342
oral histories/narratives, 120, 122–23, 124, 125, 232; on earthworks, 184, 189; of warfare, 101–3
Orendorf site, 269
Ortiz Parilla, Diego, 206
osteological evidence, 7–8, 10, 22, 30, 320, 360; analysis of diet, 18, 23; of conflict, 185–87; of trauma, 239, 240–41, 277, 319, 322–30, 331–33, 334
Otoe, 273
Overland trail, US cavalry protection of, 351–52, 353
Owasco villages, palisaded, 154
Oyarzún, Juan Ángel de, 213
pa, 194
Pacaha, 161
paleoenvironmental data, 22, 23
Paleoindian/Archaic period, 9
Paleoindian period, burials, 10
palisades, 8, 9, 20, 30, 146, 148, 149, 154, 176, 179, 244, 246, 269, 270, 272; construction and maintenance of, 147, 156, 173–74; at Iroquois sites, 163–67; at Middle Missouri sites, 169, 171, 172, 181, 183, 277, 282, 309; at Mississippian sites, 158–59, 160, 162–63; use lives, 157–58, 160; wind speeds and, 150–51; wood used in, 174–75
Palo Duro Canyon, Comanches at, 356
pandemics, 273. See also disease; epidemics
Parker, Quanah, 356
parties, on Musselshell, 54, 63
Pawnees, 17, 34, 132; Morning Star Ceremony, 134–35
Pax La Roche, 273
Pax Oneota, 273
peace, 197, 291, 355–56; human cultures and, 357–58; identifying, 358–59
Pend d’Oreille, 46, 115; on Musselshell River, 50, 54, 55
phalanxes, depictions of, 91–92, 100–101, 106–10
pictographic records, 120. See also hide/bison robe paintings; ledger-book drawings
pictographs, 38, 70. See also rock art
Piegan/Peigan, 56, 103, 128; fortifications, 257, 258; on Musselshell River, 50, 54, 55
Pierre’s Hole battle, 257–58
pikes. See maces
Piney Creek site, 260
Pinson site, 153
pipestone, 133
Plains Village period, 9, 11, 26, 33, 301, 316; fortified villages, 167–72; rock-art depictions, 12–13
plunder, of Arikara corn caches, 133
point pattern analysis, 302
political relations: antagonistic, 148–49; fortifications and, 152–53
Ponca, trade networks, 289
population movements, 15, 24, 240, 273; Middle Missouri region, 296, 297, 306–16
populations: Middle Missouri villages, 206–7, 208; Southern Plains groups, 197–99, 202
Populus deltoides, in Middle Missouri villages, 171–72, 174
Post-Contact Coalescent (PCC), 296, 297, 312
pottery. See ceramics
Powder River Basin, 132
power, 359; fortifications and, 194–96; shields and, 13, 41, 116
projectile points: at Alcova Redoubt, 250–51,